dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

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Maximum longevity: 9 years (wild)
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Associations

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Crows and ravens, owls, American kestrels, skunks, snakes, housecats and canids such as coyotes, foxes, and domestic dogs are predators of common nighthawks.

Females and young rely on their cryptic brown coloration to avoid detection of the nest site by predators. Males are not known to guard the nest but will defend it by diving over it and booming with their wings or beating the wings and hissing. Females may feign injury to distract predators from the nest. Chicks also spread their wings and hiss at intruders when threatened.

Known Predators:

  • crows and ravens (Corvus)
  • owls (Strigiformes)
  • American kestrels (Falco sparverius)
  • skunks (Mephitinae)
  • snakes (Serpentes)
  • coyotes (Canis latrans)
  • foxes (Vulpes)
  • domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
  • domestic cats (Felis silvestris)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Untitled

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Personal anecdote:

Common Nighthawks are known for their loud, nasal “peent” calls made by both sexes, as well as the males’ amazing, booming courtship dives. My husband and I were equally freaked-out and captivated by their mysterious sounds one summer night in eastern Arizona. We were driving home from Colorado, and the sun had long-since gone down. Eyelids heavy, we pulled off onto national forest land just east of Show Low to camp for the night. We laid our tarp and sleeping bags on rough volcanic gravels in a sparse juniper woodland. There was no moon. Just as we had fallen asleep, we were awaken by a loud “peenting” noise, followed by a booming, zipping “woosh.” It passed right over our heads. A few seconds later, the peent came again from a completely different corner of the sky, followed by another close woosh above our heads. Our first thought was that bored teenagers from Show Low had somehow found our campsite and were messing with our minds. What WAS that sound?!? Strangely muffled gunshots? UFO’s landing? A huge bug-zapper? It just didn’t sound natural. How could something be in one spot, then abruptly be 200 meters away, making such a mechanized sound? Then, the sound ceased, leaving us to wonder its origins. We drifted off to sleep, only to be awoken a while before dawn.

Peent! Woosh! Silence. Peent… again from a spot impossibly distant from the first call…and woosh above our heads. Disbelief gave way to reason as we hunkered in our bags, commiserating: “It’s got to be a bird.” “Maybe some kind of nightjar?” Sure enough, as the sun gradually lightened the eastern sky, we began to make out an avian shape. It would flap up on slender, pointed wings, hover, give out a loud “peent”, and dive steeply. The mechanical woosh and zipping noise came with the dive and ceased with the bird’s abrupt return skyward. It would peent again a couple hundred meters from where it began its last dive, then plunge downward. Boom-woosh! As the sky lightened, we saw the flash of white wing-patches on a second bird – perhaps a female? Then they moved off and were gone. We consulted our bird books later and decided they must have been common nighthawks. Could they have been courting? Were we disturbing a nest site? We’ll never know. Though no records of nighttime diving displays exist for this species, we definitely witnessed them late into the night and well before dawn. An unforgettable experience!

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Behavior

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Common nighthawks use calls and displays to communicate with one another. The vocalizations of common nighthawks are very simple, and have few variations. They also use non-vocal sounds, such as the booming sound made by the primary feathers of males during a courtship display to communicate. An example of the physical displays used by common nighthawks is the diving display given by males to prospective mates.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Conservation Status

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Populations of common nighthawks are declining. This decrease may be attributed to a variety of human activities. Indiscriminate pesticide use in cities and farmlands affects populations locally. In urban areas, replacement of gravel roofs with rubber roofs has reduced nesting sites for these populations. Increased predation is also a factor in general population decline. Urban nesters are especially vulnerable to predation by housecats. Common nighthawks are also killed by vehicles when roosting or feeding along roadways.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Common nighthawks have no known negative impact on humans.

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Benefits

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Since common nighthawks are insect eaters that frequent farm fields and cities, it is likely that they help control pest insect species.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Associations

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Common nighthawks help to control populations of the insects that they prey on. They also compete with bats and lesser nighthawks Chordeiles acutipennis for food.

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Trophic Strategy

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Common nighthawks are crepuscular. They are most active at dawn and dusk, and rarely feed at night. They have been reported to occasionally feed during the day in low light conditions (stormy weather or fog, for example) They use their large mouths to “hawk” insects in the air. Their large eyes help them find and distinguish among prey items in the dark. Like owls, common nighthawks have a tapetum (a mirror-like structure at the back of each eye that reflects light to the retina) that increases their ability to see in the dark. They fly with erratic, bat-like movements, taking as many as 50 different insect prey species. Studies indicate that the majority of the diet is made up of queen ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), and true bugs (Homoptera). It also includes moths (Lepidoptera), mayflies (Ephemeroptera), caddisflies (Trichoptera), flies (Diptera), wasps (Hymenoptera), crickets and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) and other insects. In the urban parts of their range, common nighthawks are often seen flying around streetlights or bright yard lights, catching insects that are attracted to the light.

Common Nighthawks drink while in flight by skimming the surface of lakes, streams, or water troughs with their bills.

Animal Foods: insects

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Distribution

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Common Nighthawks (Chordeiles minor) breed throughout much of North America and parts of Central America. Their winter distribution is less well known, but they are believed to range throughout middle South America in the lowlands east of the Andes.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Habitat

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Common nighthawks breeding habitats include coastal dunes and beaches, woodland clearings, grasslands, savannas, sagebrush plains, and open forests. They will also use habitat altered by human activity including logged or burned areas of forests, farm fields, and cities.

Common nighthawks choose nest sites on the ground in open areas with some cover from grasses, shrubs, logs, or boulders. They do not build nests. Instead, eggs are laid on a variety of substrates including sand, gravel, leaves, and bare rock. In areas of human habitation, common nighthawks often nest on flat, gravel roofs.

Little is known about the migration routes or winter habitat of common nighthawks. They have been seen migrating across wetlands, farmland, river valleys, open woodlands, and coastal dunes. They are presumed to prefer open country in their wintering sites and have been seen flying over cities and towns.

Range elevation: sea level (low) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Life Expectancy

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Common nighthawks are expected to live at least 4 to 5 years. The oldest known wild common nighthawk was 9 years old.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
9 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
4 to 5 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
4 to 5 years.

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Morphology

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Common nighthawks are medium-sized birds. They are 22 to 24 cm long and weigh 65 to 98 g. Like other members of the Caprimulgidae, they have large mouths and eyes, and are cryptically colored. They have a notched tail and long, slender, pointed wings with white patches on the primaries. Males have a white tail band near the tip of the tail and a white throat patch. Females do not have a tail band and are more buff-colored on the throat. Both sexes have bold barring on the chest and belly, though light parts tend to be whiter on males and more buff-colored on females.

Nine subspecies of common nighthawks have been described. These are differentiated by light and dark color variations in the plumage. Common nighthawks are often confused with two very similar species of nighthawks: Lesser nighthawks (Chordeiles acutipennis) and Antillean nighthawks (Chordeiles gundlachii). Lesser nighthawks are slightly smaller than Common Nighthawks, with buffy undertail-coverts instead of white, and with the white wing-patch of the primaries slightly closer to the wing tip. They also forage closer to the ground than do common nighthawks. Antillean nighthawks are virtually indistinguishable from common nighthawks in the field but by call, a nasal killikidick with the same tone as common nighthawks’ peent. In the hand, Antillean nighthawks’ wing measurements are slightly shorter than common nighthawks’.

Range mass: 65 to 98 g.

Range length: 22 to 24 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes colored or patterned differently

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.4421 W.

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Reproduction

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There is little information available about the mating system of common nighthawks. Males court females by displaying on the ground and in flight. They begin by flying 5 to 30 meters into the air and then diving steeply toward the ground, pulling up sharply about 2 meters above the ground. This display is accompanied by a “booming” noise made by the air rushing through the primary feathers of the male. Males then land near the female, spreading and shaking their tail from side to side, displaying their white throat patch, and making a croaking noise.

Mating System: monogamous

Common nighthawk breeding phenology varies throughout their range, with more southerly populations producing young as early as May and northerly populations as late as August. Little is known about pair formation or breeding activity. Female common nighthawks have been shown to arrive first at their breeding grounds and select the nest site. Banded individuals have returned to the same nest sites over multiple years. The age at first breeding is unknown for this species. Common nighthawks are assumed to breed once per year.

Females typically lay 2 eggs, 1 to 2 days apart. The eggs are pale, splotched with gray, brown, and black. The female incubates the eggs, leaving the nest in early evening to feed. Incubation periods vary throughout the breeding range between 18-20 days. After the young hatch, the female continues to leave the nest site to forage in the evening. She feeds regurgitated insects to the young before sunrise in the morning and after sunset in the evening. Nestlings are semiprecocial and able to move in response to the female’s calls within a day of hatching. The young can move to shade or sun to regulate their body temperature. After 16 days, young can hop. At 18 days they make their first flight, and can fly well at about 25-30 days old. By the time they are 30 days old, chicks have left the nest for good. Full development is achieved at 45-50 days, after which young may join migrating flocks. In southern parts of the breeding range, pairs may have a second brood. In this case, the male takes over feeding the young of the first clutch while the female incubates the second clutch. He will also feed the female.

Breeding season: spring and summer

Range eggs per season: 1 to 2.

Average eggs per season: 2.

Average time to hatching: 18-20 days.

Average fledging age: 18 days.

Average time to independence: 30 days.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average time to hatching: 19 days.

Average eggs per season: 2.

The female of a breeding pair incubates the eggs and broods the young chicks. Though the young are able to move themselves only one day after hatching, the female may move them around to take advantage of nearby shade. The parents feed the chicks regurgitated insects until they are able to feed themselves at age 25 days or so. The male defends the nest site by wing-beating and hissing at intruders. The female may also defend the nest site by feigning injury or hissing at an intruder.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

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Kropp, R. 2002. "Chordeiles minor" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Chordeiles_minor.html
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Robin Kropp, University of Arizona
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Jorge Schondube, University of Arizona
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Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
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Aerial forager

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Common Nighthawks are most active from half an hour before sunset until an hour after sunset, and again starting an hour before sunrise (ending about 15 minutes after the sun comes up). They fly with looping, batlike bouts of continuous flapping and sporadic glides. Common Nighthawks are usually solitary, but they form large flocks during migration and males sometimes roost together. Large migrating flocks are most conspicuous in early evening, particularly as the birds gather above billboards and other bright lights to feed on insects. During the breeding season they are generally very territorial but in some areas may have overlapping territories. Males court females by diving through the air, making a booming sound as air rushes over their wings. The male eventually lands on the ground before the female, spreading and waggling his tail, and puffing out his throat to display his white throat patch, while croaking at her. Females incubate the eggs and young, leaving them unattended in the evening to feed. Both males and females feed regurgitated insects to their chicks. Parents perform diversion displays to draw intruders away from the nest. Common Nighthawks may be chased from feeding and breeding areas by smaller, more maneuverable bats and Lesser Nighthawks.
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Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor). The Cornell Lab of Ornithology All About Birds. http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/lifehistory. Accessed 27 Jan 2014.
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J Medby (jamiemedby)
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Cool facts

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On warm summer evenings, Common Nighthawks roam the skies over treetops, grasslands, and cities. Their sharp, electric peent call is often the first clue they’re overhead. In the dim half-light, these long-winged birds fly in graceful loops, flashing white patches out past the bend of each wing as they chase insects. These fairly common but declining birds make no nest. Their young are so well camouflaged that they’re hard to find, and even the adults seem to vanish as soon as they land. On summer evenings, keep an eye and an ear out for the male Common Nighthawk’s dramatic “booming” display flight. Flying at a height slightly above the treetops, he abruptly dives for the ground. As he peels out of his dive (sometimes just a few meters from the ground) he flexes his wings downward, and the air rushing across his wingtips makes a deep booming or whooshing sound, as if a racecar has just passed by. The dives may be directed at females, territorial intruders, and even people. The Common Nighthawk’s impressive booming sounds during courtship dives, in combination with its erratic, bat-like flight, have earned it the colloquial name of “bullbat.” The name “nighthawk” itself is a bit of a misnomer, since the bird is neither strictly nocturnal—it’s active at dawn and dusk—nor closely related to hawks. Many Late Pleistocene fossils of Common Nighthawks, up to about 400,000 years old, have been unearthed between Virginia and California and from Wyoming to Texas. Common Nighthawks, which have one of the longest migration routes of all North American birds, sometimes show up far out of range. They have been recorded in Iceland, Greenland, the Azores, the Faroe Islands, and multiple times on the British Isles. The oldest Common Nighthawk on record was 10 years old.
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Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor). The Cornell Lab of Ornithology All About Birds. http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/lifehistory. Accessed 27 Jan 2014.
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J Medby (jamiemedby)
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Food

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Common Nighthawks eat flying insects almost exclusively. The Common Nighthawk hunts on the wing at dawn and dusk, opening its tiny beak to reveal a cavernous mouth well suited for snapping up flying insects. It often takes advantage of clouds of insects attracted to streetlamps, stadium lights, and other bright lights. Nighthawks eat queen ants, wasps, beetles, caddisflies, moths, bugs, mayflies, flies, crickets, grasshoppers, and other insects. They may also eat a small amount of vegetation. Though they forage in low light, they seem to locate prey by sight, possibly with the help of a structure in their eyes that reflects light back to the retina to improve their night vision. They occasionally forage during the day in stormy weather, but seem to never forage at night. Common Nighthawks may forage near the ground or water, or more than 500 feet into the sky.
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Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor). The Cornell Lab of Ornithology All About Birds. http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/lifehistory. Accessed 27 Jan 2014.
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J Medby (jamiemedby)
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Habitat

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Common Nighthawks nest in both rural and urban habitats including coastal sand dunes and beaches, logged forest, recently burned forest, woodland clearings, prairies, plains, sagebrush, grasslands, open forests, and rock outcrops. They also nest on flat gravel rooftops, though less often as gravel roofs are being replaced by smooth, rubberized roofs that provide an unsuitable surface. During migration, Common Nighthawks stop in farmlands, river valleys, marshes, coastal dunes, and open woodlands. Their South American wintering habitat is not well known.
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Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor). The Cornell Lab of Ornithology All About Birds. http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Nighthawk/lifehistory. Accessed 27 Jan 2014.
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J Medby (jamiemedby)
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Common nighthawk

provided by wikipedia EN

The common nighthawk or bullbat (Chordeiles minor) is a medium-sized [3][4] crepuscular or nocturnal bird[3][5] of the Americas within the nightjar family, whose presence and identity are best revealed by its vocalization. Typically dark[3] (gray, black and brown),[5] displaying cryptic colouration and intricate patterns, this bird is difficult to spot with the naked eye during the day. This bird is most conspicuous when in its buoyant and erratic flight. The most remarkable feature of this aerial insectivore is its small beak that belies the massiveness of its mouth. Some claim appearance similarities to owls. With its horizontal stance[3] and short legs, the common nighthawk does not travel frequently on the ground, instead preferring to perch horizontally, parallel to branches, on posts, on the ground or on a roof.[5] The males of this species may roost together but the bird is primarily solitary. The common nighthawk shows variability in territory size.[4]

This caprimulgid has a large, flattened head with large eyes; facially it lacks rictal bristles. The common nighthawk has long slender wings that at rest extend beyond a notched tail. There is noticeable barring on the sides and abdomen,[4] also white wing-patches.[3]

The common nighthawk measures 22 to 25 cm (8.7 to 9.8 in) long,[4] displays a wing span of 51 to 61 cm (20 to 24 in)[6] weighs 55 to 98 g (1.9 to 3.5 oz),[4][6] and has a life span of 4 to 5 years.[4]

Names and etymology

In flight showing characteristic white wing bars

The genus name Chordeiles is from Ancient Greek khoreia, a dance with music, and deile, "evening". The specific minor is Latin for "smaller".[7]

The term "nighthawk", first recorded in the King James Version of 1611, was originally a local name in England for the European nightjar. Its use in the Americas to refers to members of the genus Chordeiles and related genera was first recorded in 1778.[8]

The common nighthawk is sometimes called a "bull-bat", due to its perceived "bat-like" flight, and the "bull-like" boom made by its wings as it pulls from a dive.[6]

They, in addition to other nightjars, are also sometimes called "bugeaters", for their insectivore diet. The common nighthawk is likely the reason that Nebraska's state nickname was once the "Bugeater State", and its people were known as "bugeaters".[9][10][11] The Nebraska Cornhuskers college athletic teams were also briefly known the Bugeaters, before adopting their current name, which was also adopted by the state as a whole. A semi-professional soccer team in Nebraska now uses the Bugeaters moniker.

Taxonomy

Within the family Caprimulgidae, the subfamily Chordeilinae (nighthawks) are limited to the New World and are distinguished from the subfamily Caprimulginae, by the lack of rictal bristles.

The American Ornithologists' Union treated the smaller Antillean nighthawk as conspecific with the common nighthawk until 1982.[4]

Up until the early 19th century, the common nighthawk and the whip-poor-will were thought to be one species. The latter's call was explained as the nocturnal expression of the common nighthawk. Alexander Wilson, "The Father of American Ornithology", correctly made the differentiation between the two species.

Subspecies

There are 9 currently recognized subspecies:[12]

  • C. m. panamensisEisenmann, 1962: breeds on the Pacific slope of Panama and north west Costa Rica. It is noted to depart Panama during winter for points in South America
  • C. m. neotropicalisSelander & Alvarez del Toro, 1955: breeds in south Mexico and Honduras
  • C. m. howelliOberholser, 1914: breeds in west central United States (north Texas, west Oklahoma, and Kansas to east Colorado, less typical form in central Colorado, north east Utah and Wyoming). It is darker than sennetti and paler and less cinnamon than henryi.
  • C. m. hesperisGrinnell, 1905: breeds in south west Canada (British Columbia and Alberta), the western interior of United States (Washington, Montana, Nevada, interior California, Utah, extreme north Colorado, west Wyoming). It is darker than sennetti and paler and less cinnamon than henryi.
  • C. m. aserriensisCherrie, 1896: breeds from south central Texas to north Mexico. It is darker than sennetti and paler and less cinnamon than henryi.
  • C. m. chapmaniCoues, 1888: breeds from southeast Kansas to east North Carolina and southwards to south east Texas and south Florida. It is the darkest of the subspecies.
  • C. m. sennettiCoues, 1888: breeds in the north Great Plains: east Montana, south Saskatchewan, Manitoba, southwards to North Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. It is the palest of the subspecies.
  • C. m. henryiCassin, 1855: breeds from south east Utah and south west Colorado through mountains of west Texas, Arizona and New Mexico (less north east) to east Sonora, Chihuahua, and Durango. It is unique with ochraceous to deep cinnamon feather edges on upperparts.
  • C. m. minor(J.R. Forster, 1771): breeds from south east Alaska to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, and south Canada/northern United States (Minnesota, Indiana) to Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia and Oklahoma. Considered by some as the darkest subspecies.[13]

History

This species is recorded as widespread during the Late Pleistocene, from Virginia to California and from Wyoming to Texas.[4]

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, because their name contained the word "hawk", they had habits of diurnal insect hunting, and they travelled in migrating flocks, they were hunted for sport and nourishment and because they were seen as predators.[6]

Field identification

Common nighthawk in British Columbia

The common nighthawk is distinguished from other caprimulguids by its forked tail (includes a white bar in males); its long, unbarred, pointed wings with distinctive white patches; its lack of rictal bristles, and the key identifier – their unmistakable calls.[13] These birds range from 21 to 25 cm (8.3 to 9.8 in) in total length and from 51 to 61 cm (20 to 24 in) in wingspan.[14] Body mass can vary from 55 to 98 g (1.9 to 3.5 oz). Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 17.2 to 21.3 cm (6.8 to 8.4 in), the tail is 13 to 15.1 cm (5.1 to 5.9 in), the bill is 0.5 to 0.8 cm (0.20 to 0.31 in) and the tarsus is 1.2 to 1.6 cm (0.47 to 0.63 in).

The common nighthawk resembles both the Antillean nighthawk and the lesser nighthawk and occurs at least seasonally in the entire North American range of both of these species. The lesser nighthawk is a smaller bird and displays more buffy on the undertail coverts, where the common nighthawk shows white. Common nighthawks and Antillean nighthawks exhibit entirely dark on the basal portion of the primary feathers, whereas lesser nighthawks have bands of buffy spots. Common and Antillean nighthawks have a longer outermost primary conveying a pointier wing tip than the lesser nighthawk. The common nighthawk forages higher above ground than the lesser nighthawk and has a different call. The only reliable way to distinguish Antillean nighthawk without disturbance is also by the differences in their calls. Visually, they may only be distinguished as different from the common nighthawk once in the hand. Subtle differences are reported to be a challenge in field identification.[4]

Habitat and distribution

The common nighthawk may be found in forests, desert, savannahs, beach and desert scrub, cities,[3] and prairies,[4] at elevations of sea level or below to 3,000 m (9,800 ft).[3] They are one of a handful of birds that are known to inhabit recently burned forests, and then dwindle in numbers as successional growth occurs over the succeeding years or decades. The common nighthawk is drawn into urban built-up areas by insects.[5]

The common nighthawk is the only nighthawk occurring over the majority of northern North America.

Food availability is likely a key factor in determining which and when areas are suitable for habitation. The common nighthawk is not well adapted to survive in poor conditions, specifically low food availability. Therefore, a constant food supply consistent with warmer temperatures is a driving force for migration and ultimately survival.

It is thought that the bird is not able to enter torpor,[4] although recent evidence suggests it does.[13]

Migration

During migration, common nighthawks may travel 2,500 to 6,800 kilometres (1,600 to 4,200 mi). They migrate by day or night in loose flocks; frequently numbering in the thousands,[6] no visible leader has been observed. The enormous distance travelled between breeding grounds and wintering range is one of the North America's longer migrations. The northbound journey commences at the end of February and the birds reach destinations as late as mid-June. The southbound migration commences mid-July and reaches a close in early October.[4]

Common nighthawk in flight, near Miami, Florida

While migrating, these birds have been reported travelling through middle America, Florida, the West Indies,[6] Cuba, the Caribbean and Bermuda,[4] finally completing their journey in the wintering grounds of South America,[6][13] primarily Argentina.[13]

As aerial insectivores, the migrants will feed en route,[6] congregating to hunt in marshes, rivers and on lakeshores. In Manitoba and Ontario, Canada, it is reported that during migration the nighthawks are seen most commonly in the late afternoon, into the evening,[4][5] with a burst of sunset feeding activities.[5]

Additionally, it has been noted that during migration the birds may fly closer to the ground than normal; possibly foraging for insects. There is speculation that feeding also occurs at higher altitudes.

The common nighthawk winters in southern South America, but distribution in this range is poorly known due to difficulties in distinguishing the bird from the lesser nighthawk and in differentiating between migrants and overwintering birds. In some South and Central American countries, a lack of study has led to restricted and incomplete records of the bird. Records do support wintering in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina.[4]

Moult

In the common nighthawk, all bodily plumage and rectrices are replaced in the post-juvenile moult. This moult commences in September at the breeding grounds; the majority of the body plumage is replaced but wing-coverts and rectrices are not completed until January–February, once the bird arrives at the wintering grounds. There is no other moult prior to the annual moult of the adult. Common nighthawk adults have a complete moult that occurs mostly or completely on wintering grounds and is not completed until January or February.[13]

Behavior

Vocalization

There are no differences between the calls and song of the common nighthawk. The most conspicuous vocalization is a nasal peent or beernt during even flight. Peak vocalizations are reported 30 to 45 minutes after sunset.

Call of the common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor)

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A croaking auk auk auk is vocalized by males while in the presence of a female during courtship. Another courtship sound, thought to be made solely by the males, is the boom, created by air rushing through the primaries after a quick downward flex of the wings during a daytime dive.

In defense of their nests, the females make a rasping sound, and males clap their wings together.[15] Strongly territorial males will perform dives against fledglings, females, and intruders such as humans or raccoons.[4]

Feeding and diet

Frequent flyers, the long-winged common nighthawk hunts on the wing[13] for extended periods at high altitudes or in open areas.[5] Crepuscular, flying insects are its preferred food source. The hunt ends as dusk becomes night, and resumes when night becomes dawn.[13] Nighttime feeding (in complete darkness) is rare,[4] even on evenings with a full moon.[13] The bird displays opportunistic feeding tendencies, although it may be able to fine-tune its meal choice in the moments before capture.

Vision is presumed to be the main detection sense; no evidence exists to support the use of echolocation. The birds have been observed to converge on artificial light sources in an effort to forage for insects enticed by the light.[4] The average flight speed of common nighthawks is 23.4 km/h (14.5 mph).[16]

Drinking, pellet-casting and droppings

The common nighthawk was observed to drink on its winter range by flying extremely low over the surface of the water.[17]

No evidence suggests this bird casts pellets.

The common nighthawk is recognized to discharge feces around nest and roosting positions. The bird will sporadically defecate in flight. The defecation is pungent.[4]

Reproduction and nesting

The common nighthawk breeds during the period of mid-March to early October.[6] It most commonly has only one brood per season, however sometimes a second brood is produced. The bird is assumed to breed every year. Reuse of nests by females in subsequent years has been reported.[4] A monogamous habit has also recently been confirmed.[13]

Courting and mate selection occur partially in flight. The male dives and booms (see Vocalization) in an effort to garner female attention;[4][5] the female may be in flight herself or stationary on the ground.

Copulation occurs when the pair settles on the ground together; the male with his rocking body, widespread tail wagging and bulging throat expresses guttural croaking sounds. This display by the male is performed repeatedly until copulation.[4]

The preferred breeding/nesting habitat is in forested regions with expansive rocky outcrops, in clearings, in burned areas[5] or in small patches of sandy gravel.[4] The eggs are not laid in a nest, but on bare rock, gravel,[5] or sometimes a living substrate such as lichen.[4] Least popular are breeding sites in agricultural settings.[18] As displayed in the latter portion of the 20th century, urban breeding is in decline.[5] If urban breeding sites do occur, they are observed on flat gravel rooftops.

It is a solitary nester, putting great distances between itself and other pairs of the same species, but a nest would more commonly occur in closer proximity to other species of birds.

Females choose the nest site and are the primary incubators of the eggs; males will incubate occasionally. Incubation time varies but is approximately 18 days. The female will leave the nest unattended during the evening in order to feed. The male will roost in a neighbouring tree (the spot he chooses changes daily); he guards the nest by diving, hissing, wing-beating or booming at the sites. In the face of predation, common nighthawks do not abandon the nest easily; instead they likely rely on their cryptic colouration to camouflage themselves. If a departure does occur, the females have been noted to fly away, hissing at the intruder[4] or performing a disturbance display.[13]

Incubation, hatching and young

The eggs are elliptical, strong, and variably coloured with heavy speckling. The common nighthawk lays two 6–7 g (0.21–0.25 oz) eggs per clutch; the eggs are laid over a period of 1 to 2 days. The female alone displays a brood patch.

The chicks may be heard peeping in the hours before they hatch. Once the chicks have broken out of the shells, the removal of the debris is necessary in order to avoid predators. The mother may carry the eggshells to another location or consume a portion of them. Once hatched, the nestlings are active and have their eyes fully or half open; additionally they display a sparing cover of soft down feathers. The chicks are semi-precocial. By day 2, the hatchlings' bodily mass will double and they will be able to self-propel towards their mother's call. The young will hiss at an intruder.

The young are fed by regurgitation before sunrise and after sunset. The male parent assists in feeding fledglings and will also feed the female during nesting. No records exist to support a parent's ability to physically carry a chick.

On their 18th day, the young will make their first flight; by days 25–30, they are flying proficiently. The young are last seen with their parents on day 30. Complete development is shown between their 45–50th day. At day 52, the juvenile will join the flock, potentially migrating. Juvenile birds, in both sexes, are lighter in colour and have a smaller white wing-patch than adult common nighthawks.[4]

Predators

Like other members of the caprimulgid clan, the nighthawk's ground nesting habits endanger eggs and nestlings to predation by ground carnivores, such as skunks, raccoons and opossums.[19] Confirmed predation on adults is restricted to domestic cats, golden eagles, and great horned owls.[20] Peregrine falcons have also been confirmed to attack nighthawks as prey, although the one recorded predation attempt was unsuccessful.[21] Other suspected predators are likely to attack them, such as dogs, coyotes, foxes, hawks, American kestrels,[22] owls, crows and ravens, and snakes.[23]

Status and conservation

There has been a general decline in the number of common nighthawks in North America, but some population increases also have occurred[4] in other geographical locations.[13] The bird's large range makes individual risk thresholds in specific regions difficult to establish.[1] In Ontario, the common nighthawk is rated as a species of special concern.[24]

The Common nighthawk's trait of being a ground-nesting bird makes it particularly susceptible to predators, some of which include domestic cats, ravens, snakes, dogs, coyotes, falcons and owls.

Lack of flat roofs, pesticides,[4] increased predation and loss of habitat[13] are noted factors of their decline. Further unstudied potential causes of decline include climate change, disease, road kills, man-made towers (posing aerial hazards), and parasites.[4]

The absence of flat roofs (made with gravel) in urban settings is an important cause of decline. In an effort to provide managed breeding areas, gravel pads have been added in the corners of rubberized roofs; this proves acceptable, as nesting has been observed.[13]

References

  1. ^ a b BirdLife International (2016). "Chordeiles minor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22689714A93244252. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22689714A93244252.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ "Chordeiles minor". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Sibley, David Allen (2001). The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behaviour. Chanticleer Press, Inc.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Poulin, R.; Grindal, S.; Brigham, R. (1996). "Common Nighthawk, no. 213". The Birds of North America. The American Ornithologists' Union.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l The Birds of Manitoba. Manitoba Avian Research Committee. Manitoba Naturalists Society. 2003. ISBN 9780969728016.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Elphick, J., ed. (2007). Atlas of Bird Migration. Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1554079711.
  7. ^ Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 104, 256. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  8. ^ "Nighthawk". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  9. ^ "NE [Nebraska] introduction". netstate.com.
  10. ^ Capace, Nancy (Jan 1, 1999). Encyclopedia of Nebraska. Somerset Publishers, Inc. pp. 2–3.
  11. ^ U.S. Boston, MA: D. Lothrop Company. 1890. p. 77. An index to the United States of America: Historical, geographical and political. A handbook of reference combining the "curious" in U.S. history.
  12. ^ Gill, F.; Donsker, D., eds. (2014). "IOC World Bird List" (4.4 ed.). doi:10.14344/IOC.ML.4.4. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Holyoak, D.T. (2001). Nightjars and their Allies: the Caprimulgiformes. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854987-3.
  14. ^ "Common Nighthawk". mountainnature.com. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
  15. ^ "Sounds". allaboutbirds.org. Common Nighthawk. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology.
  16. ^ Brigham, R.M.; Fenton, M.B.; Aldridge, H.D.J.N. (1998). "Flight speed of foraging Common Nighthawks (Chordeiles minor): Does the measurement technique matter?". American Midland Naturalist. 139 (2): 325–330. doi:10.1674/0003-0031(1998)139[0325:fsofcn]2.0.co;2. JSTOR 2426689. S2CID 86113224.
  17. ^ Canevari, M.; Canevari, P.; Carrizo, G.; Harris, G.; Mata, J.; Straneck, R. (1991). Nueva guia de las aves Argentinas [New Guide to the Birds of Argentina] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Fundacion Acindar. cited in Poulin, Grindal, & Brigham (1996)[4].
  18. ^ Gillette, L. (1991). "Survey of common nighthawks in Minnesota, 1990". The Loon. 62: 141–143. cited in Birds of Manitoba (2003, p. 238)[5]: 238 .
  19. ^ Kantrud, H.A.; Higgins, K.F. (1992). "Nest and nest site characteristics of some groundnesting, nonpasserine birds of northern grasslands". Prairie Naturalist. 24: 67–84.
  20. ^ Olendorff, R.R. (1976). "The food habits of North American golden eagles". American Midland Naturalist. 95 (1): 231–236. doi:10.2307/2424254. JSTOR 2424254.
  21. ^ Bennett, G. (1987). "A vellication of nighthawks". Birdfinding in Canada. 7: 16.
  22. ^ Gross, A.O. (1940). Bent, A.C. (ed.). "Eastern Nighthawk". U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. Life histories of North American cuckoos, goatsuckers, hummingbirds, and their allies. 176: 206–234.
  23. ^ Marzilli, V. (1989). "Up on the roof". Maine Fish and Wildlife. 31: 25–29.
  24. ^ "Common nighthawk". Government of Ontario. September 10, 2009.

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Common nighthawk: Brief Summary

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The common nighthawk or bullbat (Chordeiles minor) is a medium-sized crepuscular or nocturnal bird of the Americas within the nightjar family, whose presence and identity are best revealed by its vocalization. Typically dark (gray, black and brown), displaying cryptic colouration and intricate patterns, this bird is difficult to spot with the naked eye during the day. This bird is most conspicuous when in its buoyant and erratic flight. The most remarkable feature of this aerial insectivore is its small beak that belies the massiveness of its mouth. Some claim appearance similarities to owls. With its horizontal stance and short legs, the common nighthawk does not travel frequently on the ground, instead preferring to perch horizontally, parallel to branches, on posts, on the ground or on a roof. The males of this species may roost together but the bird is primarily solitary. The common nighthawk shows variability in territory size.

This caprimulgid has a large, flattened head with large eyes; facially it lacks rictal bristles. The common nighthawk has long slender wings that at rest extend beyond a notched tail. There is noticeable barring on the sides and abdomen, also white wing-patches.

The common nighthawk measures 22 to 25 cm (8.7 to 9.8 in) long, displays a wing span of 51 to 61 cm (20 to 24 in) weighs 55 to 98 g (1.9 to 3.5 oz), and has a life span of 4 to 5 years.

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