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Behavior

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Marmots have strong tactile senses, well-developed for burrowing. Quick reflexes also allow marmots to respond rapidly to their wide range of environmental influences and social interactions. Marmots are highly alert and rely heavily on visual and auditory senses to alert them to potential predators. Per-capita time spent scanning decreases as colony size increases. For example, Olympic marmots tend to spend less time watching for predators, since they commonly forage in groups. In contrast, individuals that forage alone continually pause, scanning the surrounding environment for predators. In comparison to marmots feeding in groups, individuals spend nearly twice the amount of time watching for predators. Distance from their home burrow also affects alertness. For example, yellow-bellied marmots in close range of their burrows, tend to be less vigilant in scanning their surroundings than those foraging at greater distances.

Himalayan marmots often communicate by whistling or chirping, and using physical behaviors. When a predator is detected, they produce a series of alarm calls, which have been observed in many marmot species. It is unclear if there is a distinct vocalization associated with mating. In some species, such as woodchucks, males attract reproductive females using pheromones. Certain physical interactions, such as nestling and nibbling, indicate an individual is ready and willing mate. Because of their burrowing tendencies, Himalayan marmots are difficult to observe in their natural habitat. As a result, few detailed studies of their mating behavior have been conducted.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

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Conservation Status

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Although current population trends are unknown, Himalayan marmots are classified as a species of least concern on the IUCN's Red List of THreatened Species. They are locally abundant throughout their geographic range and show no signs of decline. This species occurs in habitats protected for snow leopards, which is classified as endangered by the IUCN. As a result, they are relatively unaffected by human impacts throughout much of their range.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

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Benefits

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There are no known adverse effects of Himalayan marmots on humans.

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Benefits

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Historically, the flesh of Himalayan marmots reportedly was used in traditional Tibetan medicine, for treatment of renal disease.

Positive Impacts: source of medicine or drug

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Associations

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Himalayan marmots are important prey for snow leopards, which are classified as endangered on the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species. They are also important prey for a number of other predatory mammals and birds. As burrowing animals, they likely help increased soil aeration and water penetration throughout their geographic range. In addition, abandoned borrows likely serve as habitat for numerous other species of small mammals. There is no information available regarding parasites specific to this species.

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Trophic Strategy

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Himalayan marmots (M. himalayana) are herbivores. Old plant growth is commonly avoided due to the presence of alkaloids, which emit a bitter, metallic taste. Most marmots prefer flowering plants because they are more palatable, and select forage containing higher amounts of protein, fatty acids and minerals. Plant selection differs throughout the year since certain flora species are only available seasonally. Himalayan marmots are sometimes sympatric with livestock (e.g., domesticated yaks) and feed in the same pastures.

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Frugivore , Granivore )

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Distribution

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Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayan) are 1 of 14 Marmota species alive today. While members of the genus Marmota occur across portions of Asia, Europe, and North America, Himalayan marmots are restricted to high elevation regions of northwestern south Asia and China. In Asia, Himalayan marmots occur across the Himalayan Mountains of India, Nepal, and Pakistan. In China, they are found in several provinces, primarily across the Tibetan Plateau in western, central, and southern portions of the country.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); oriental (Native )

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Habitat

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Himalayan marmots are found most often between timberline and snowline, at elevations of 3,500 to 5,200 m. Temperatures in these areas typically range from 8 C to 12 C. Himalayan marmots occur primarily in dry, open habitats, including alpine meadows, grasslands, and deserts. Much of their habitat falls within the Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows ecoregion. Vegetation in this ecoregion is dominated by stunted evergreen shrubs and birch-dominated forest patches. At higher elevations, this shrub-dominated community shifts to open alpine meadows. This ecoregion is largely protected due to the presence of critically endangered snow leopards. Like other marmots, Himalayan marmots dig large burrows, which generally restricts them to areas with light-textured and adequately deep soil. The burrows of Himalayan marmots are exceptionally deep, typically ranging from 2.0 to 3.5 m. In preparation for hibernation, Himalayan marmots dig burrows that are considerably deeper, sometimes reaching depths of 10 m. These burrows are shared by all members of the colony during hibernation.

Range elevation: 2500 to 5200 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

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Life Expectancy

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Himalayan marmots have an average lifespan of 15 years in the wild. They are rarely held in captivity and thus, there is no information available concerning the average lifespan of individuals under these conditions. Typical lifespans for Marmota species ranges from 12 to 17 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
15 years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
15 (high) years.

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Morphology

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Members of the genus Marmota are generally referred to as large ground squirrels. Marmots are large terrestrial rodents with stout limbs and short tails. Himalayan marmots are similar in size to an average house cat. They are generally larger than other marmot species across their native range. Himalayan marmots are particularly stout-bodied and range in length from 475 to 670 mm. They have relatively large skulls, ranging from 96 to 114 mm in length, and exceptionally large hind feet, which range in length from 76 to 100 mm. Like other marmots, each forefoot has four-toes with long concave claws for burrowing, and each hind foot has five toes. Despite their large body size, Himalayan marmots have shorter tails than many other marmot species. Their tail length ranges from 125 to 150 mm, comparable to that of gray marmots. Their ears, ranging from 23 to 30 mm in length, are also relatively short compared to other marmot species. Dorsal pelage ranges from yellow to brown, and they often have irregular black or blackish brown spots, particularly on the face and snout. Ventral pelage is buff yellow to russet. Two subspecies of Himalayan marmots have been described: M. himalayana himalayana and M. himalayana robusta. Marmota himalayana robusta is especially large, with individuals reported to weigh over 6 kg. In general, Himalayan marmots range in mass from 4 to 9.2 kg. Sexual dimorphism has not been reported in this species.

Range mass: 4 to 9.2 kg.

Range length: 475 to 670 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

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Associations

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Predators of Himalayan marmots include snow leopards, Tibetan wolves, and large birds of prey like bearded vultures and golden eagles. Himalayan marmots are important prey for snow leopards, and evidence suggests that they make nearly 20% of the snow leopard diet. Brown bears may also prey on Himalayan marmots.

Marmots are typically on watch for predators while out of their burrows. Distance from burrow and colony size are correlated with per-capita time spent scanning, as greater distances and smaller colonies results in more time spent scanning. When Himalayan marmots sense a predator approaching, they use a distinct series of calls to alert other members of their group. These alarm calls consist of rapidly repeating sounds, beginning with a low frequency call. Each call typically lasts less than 80 milliseconds. A single series of calls continues for less than 1 second. Alarm calls are repeated usually every 5 to 20 seconds. Alarm calls in Himalayan marmots can be distinguished from those produced by other marmots, as the first and second sounds in each series occur in much more rapid succession.

Known Predators:

  • brown bears (Ursus arctos)
  • snow leopards (Panthera uncia)
  • Tibetan wolves (Canis lupus)
  • bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus)
  • golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos)
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Reproduction

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Most marmot species are cooperative breeders, and many species live in family groups consisting of a reproductive territorial pair, subordinate adults, yearlings and young. Although most marmots are monogamous, in some species, females have multiple mates. Special care is provided during hibernation, when other adults aid in social thermoregulation of the young. This may be a form of alloparental care, whereby unrelated adults aid in care of the offspring.

All species of marmots (Marmota spp.) reach reproductive maturity by the age of two. However, reproduction typically is delayed another year or more. When marmots reproduce early in the year, it is more physically stressful. Because female marmots do not gain body mass during lactation (and may lose body mass), early reproduction represents a risk, as these individuals must rely on favorable future food availability and weather conditions to sustain their reproductive effort. Reproductive females gain mass at least three weeks later than barren females, but this time period typically is adequate to restore body mass similar to that of barren females. The inability of pregnant females to maximize fattening may lead to reproductive skipping (failure to wean their young). This occurs in most marmot species.

Mating System: monogamous ; polyandrous ; cooperative breeder

Annual mating in Himalayan marmots occurs during February and March, and gestation lasts up to one month. Like most marmots, Himalayan marmots give birth in late spring and early summer. This coincides with the end or near end of hibernation. Himalayan marmots typically produce 2 to 11 offspring per litter. Variation in litter size often reflects overall population density. When population density is high, females yield an average of 4.8 offspring per litter. In less dense populations, females average 7 pups per litter. After parturition, offspring are weaned over a 15 day period. Once offspring are independent, juveniles maintain permanent residences in their familial communities, which is typical of most marmot species.

Breeding interval: Himalayan marmots mate once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding in Himalayan marmots typically occurs during February and March.

Range number of offspring: 2 to 11.

Average number of offspring: 6.

Average gestation period: 1 months.

Average weaning age: 15 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous

Most marmots provide considerable care to their offspring. In many species, such as Olympic marmots, offspring remain in the burrow for at least one month after birth. In Himalayan marmots, milk is provided to the young during the first 15 days of life. Most marmots receive nearly constant care from the mother, both while in the burrow and for several weeks after emerging. After several weeks, offspring of most species are capable of foraging independently. Blumstein and Armitage (1999) discuss similarities and differences in cooperative breeding and alloparental care across marmot species but note that little is known about this aspect of Himalayan marmot reproduction.

Parental Investment: precocial ; female parental care ; pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents

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Himalayan marmot

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The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) is a marmot species that inhabits alpine grasslands throughout the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau. It is IUCN Red Listed as Least Concern because of its wide range and possibly large population.[1]

Taxonomy

Arctomys Himalayanus was the scientific name proposed by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1841 who described marmot skins from the Himalayas.[2] In the 19th century, several Himalayan marmot specimens were described and proposed as subspecies.[3]

The Himalayan marmot is very closely related to the Tarbagan marmot (M. sibirica) and somewhat more distantly to the—in morphology rather different—black-capped marmot (M. camtschatica). These three form a species group and its nearest relative is the bobak species group, which includes the bobak marmot (M. bobak) itself, as well as the gray (M. baibacina) and forest-steppe marmots (M. kastschenkoi). In the past, the relatively short-furred and short-tailed marmots of the Palearctic region, i.e. Himalayan, Tarbagan, gray and forest-steppe, all were regarded as subspecies of the bobak marmot.[4]

Characteristics

Himalayan marmots near Pangong Tso, Ladakh

The Himalayan marmot has a dense woolly fur that is rufous grey on the back and rufous yellowish on ears, belly and limbs. The bridge of its nose and end of tail is dark brown.[2] It is one of the largest marmots in the world, being about the size of a large housecat. Average body mass ranges from 4 to 9.2 kg (8.8 to 20.3 lb), with weights lowest post-hibernation in spring and highest prior to it in autumn. In the autumn, average weight is reportedly more than 7 kg (15 lb) in both sexes. Total length is about 45 to 67 cm (18 to 26 in), with a tail length of 12 to 15 cm (4.7 to 5.9 in).[5][6]

Distribution and habitat

Himalayan marmots near Ganda La, Ladakh

The Himalayan marmot occurs in the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau at altitudes of 3,000 to 5,500 m (9,800–18,000 ft) in northeastern Pakistan, northern India, Nepal, Bhutan and China.[4][7] In China, it has been recorded in Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Xizang, western Sichuan and Yunnan provinces.[8] In the west its distribution reaches that of the long-tailed marmot (M. caudata), but the two are not known to hybridize. The Himalayan marmot lives in short grass steppes or alpine habitats, typically above the tree line but below the permanent snow limit.[4]

Ecology and behaviour

Himalayan marmot peeping out of its burrow

The Himalayan marmot lives in colonies and excavates deep burrows that colony members share during hibernation.[7] The species hibernates from the late autumn to the early spring, on average for 712 months.[4] Burrows are between 2 and 10 m (6.6–32.8 ft) deep, given that the upper soil layer is sufficiently light and deep such as fluvioglacial, deluvial and alluvial deposits. Where soil conditions are ideal on alluvial terraces, marmot colonies comprise up to 30 families, with up to 10 families living in an area of 1 km (0.6 mi). The marmot eats plants growing on pastures, in particular the soft and juicy parts of grassy plant species like Carex, Agrostis, Deschampsia, Koeleria and flowering species like Euphrasia, Gentiana, Halenia, Polygonum, Primula, Ranunculus, Saussurea, Taraxacum Iris potaninii.[5]

Reproduction

Females become sexually mature at the age of two years. After one month of gestation they give birth to litters of two to 11 young.[7]

Predators

On the Tibetan plateau, marmot species form part of snow leopard prey.[9] Other predators of Himalayan marmots include Tibetan wolves, red fox, and large birds of prey like hawks, kestrels, bearded vultures, and golden eagles.[10][11]

In culture

It was known to the ancient Greek writers as the gold-digging ant apparently as reference to the fact that gold nuggets were found in the silts of the burrows these marmots dug.[12][13] The French ethnologist Michel Peissel claimed that the story of 'gold-digging ants' reported by the Greek historian Herodotus was founded on the golden Himalayan marmot of the Deosai plateau and the habit of local tribes such as the Minaro to collect the gold dust excavated from their burrows.[14]

A photograph of a Himalayan marmot under attack by a Tibetan fox taken by Bao Yongqing won the overall prize in the 2019 Wildlife Photographer of the Year award.[15]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Shrestha, T. (2017) [errata version of 2016 assessment]. "Marmota himalayana". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T12826A115106426.
  2. ^ a b Hodgson, B. H. (1841). "Notice of the Marmot of the Himalaya and of Tibet". The Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 10 (2): 777–778.
  3. ^ Thorington, R.W., Jr.; Hoffman, R.S. (2005). "Species Marmota (Marmota) himalayana". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 801. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  4. ^ a b c d Kryštufek, B.; Vohralík, B. (2013). "Taxonomic revision of the Palaearctic rodents (Rodentia). Part 2. Sciuridae: Urocitellus, Marmota and Sciurotamias". Lynx, N. S. (Praha). 44: 27–138.
  5. ^ a b Nikol’skii, A. A.; Ulak, A. (2006). "Key factors determining the ecological niche of the Himalayan marmot, Marmota himalayana Hodgson (1841)". Russian Journal of Ecology. 37 (1): 46–52. doi:10.1134/S1067413606010085. S2CID 23526958.
  6. ^ Chaudhary, V.; Tripathi, R. S.; Singh, S.; Raghuvanshi, M. S. (2017). "Distribution and population of Himalayan Marmot Marmota himalayana (Hodgson, 1841) (Mammalia: Rodentia: Sciuridae) in Leh-Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, India". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 9 (11): 10886–10891. doi:10.11609/jott.3336.9.11.10886-10891.
  7. ^ a b c Molur, S.; Srinivasulu, C.; Srinivasulu, B.; Walker, S.; Nameer, P.O.; Ravikumar, L. (2005). Status of non-volant small mammals: Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (C.A.M.P) workshop report. Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation / CBSG-South Asia.
  8. ^ Smith, A.T.; Xie, Y. (2008). A Guide to the Mammals of China. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
  9. ^ Lyngdoh, S.; Shrotriya, S.; Goyal, S. P.; Clements, H.; Hayward, M. W. & Habib, B. (2014). "Prey preferences of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia): regional diet specificity holds global significance for conservation". PLOS ONE. 9 (2): e88349. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...988349L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088349. PMC 3922817. PMID 24533080.
  10. ^ Padgett, L.; Small, C. (2011). "Marmota himalayana, Himalayan marmot". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  11. ^ Rajat Ghai (7 July 2020). "After bats, do not make marmots into villains: Expert". Down To Earth. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  12. ^ Simons, Marlise (25 November 1996). "Himalayas offer clue to legend of gold digging 'ants'". New York Times. Archived from the original on 2016-04-14 – via livius.org.
  13. ^ N. Shiva Kumar (September 22, 2013). "Marmots caught off guard". The Hindu. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved May 7, 2016.
  14. ^ Peissel, M. (1984). "The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas". Harvill Press. ISBN 978-0-00-272514-9.
  15. ^ "Wildlife photographer of the year 2019 winners – in pictures". The Guardian. 2019-10-16. Archived from the original on 2019-10-16. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
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Himalayan marmot: Brief Summary

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The Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) is a marmot species that inhabits alpine grasslands throughout the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau. It is IUCN Red Listed as Least Concern because of its wide range and possibly large population.

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