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Eastern Juniper

Juniperus virginiana L.

Associations

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Foodplant / gall
telium of Gymnosporangium sabinae causes gall of live, swollen branch of Juniperus virginiana
Remarks: season: 4-5

Foodplant / feeds on
Trisetacus chamaecypari feeds on foliage of Juniperus virginiana

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Description

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Trees to 30 m, dioecious; bark reddish brown; crown columnar-conical or conical; branches erect or spreading; branchlets thin, 4-angled, ca. 0.8 mm in diam. Leaves both scalelike and needlelike; needlelike leaves usually present on young plants, rarely present on adult plants, decussate or in whorls of 3, ascending, glaucous, 5-6 mm, concave adaxially; scalelike leaves decussate, rhombic-ovate, 1.5-3 mm, concave, abaxial gland basal, elliptic or ovate. Pollen cones 2-3 × ca. 1.5 mm; microsporophylls 8-12, each with 3 or 4 pollen sacs. Seed cones bluish green when ripe, glaucous, globose to ovoid, 4-6(-7) × 3-5.5 mm, 1- or 2-seeded. Seeds ovoid, 3-5 × 3-4 mm.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of China Vol. 4: 73 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Description

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Trees dioecious, to 30 m, single-stemmed; crown narrowly erect to conical, round, or flattened. Bark brown, exfoliating in thin strips, that of small branchlets (5--10 mm diam.) smooth, that of larger branchlets usually not exfoliating in plates. Branches pendulous to ascending; branchlets generally erect, sometimes lax to flaccid, 3--4-sided in cross section, ca. 2/3 or less as wide as length of scalelike leaves. Leaves green but sometimes turning reddish brown in winter, abaxial gland elliptic or elongate, conspicuous, exudate absent, margins entire (at 20´ and 40´); whip leaves 3--6 mm, not glaucous adaxially; scalelike leaves 1--3 mm, overlapping by more than 1/4 their length, keeled, apex obtuse to acute, spreading. Seed cones maturing in 1 year, of 1 size, generally with straight peduncles, globose to ovoid, 3--6(--7) mm, blue-black to brownish blue when mature, glaucous, soft and resinous, with 1--2(--3) seeds. Seeds 1.5--4 mm.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of North America Editorial Committee
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Habitat & Distribution

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Cultivated for ornament and planted for afforestation. Anhui, Fujian, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shandong, Zhejiang [native to E Canada, E United States]
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of China Vol. 4: 73 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Synonym

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Sabina virginiana (Linnaeus) Antoine.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of China Vol. 4: 73 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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eFloras.org
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Brief Summary

provided by EOL authors

Juniperus virginiana, American juniper or eastern red-cedar (also called red cedar, Virginia cedar, red juniper, or savin), is a medium-sized evergreen coniferous tree in the Cupressaceae (cypress family), widely distributed throughout the eastern half of North America. Although generally not considered to be an important commercial species, its wood is highly valued for specialty furniture and wood products because of its beauty, durability, and workability. It is often used to make or line chests and drawers (as a moth repellent) and for fence posts (because it is rot resistant). It provides cedarwood oil for fragrance compounds, food and shelter for wildlife, and protective vegetation for fragile soils. The number of trees and volume of American juniper is increasing throughout most of its range, as it readily colonizes disturbed sites, and is sometimes aggressively weedy in taking over abandoned fields and roadsides. Dozens of cultivars have been developed for ornamental and landscaping purposes, with a large array of forms and foliage colors. American juniper typically grows to 23 m (75 ft) high (although many cultivars are smaller), with a pyramidal or conical canopy, and thin bark. The leaves on young growth are needle-like but flattened, and are either opposite or ternate (in whorls of three). Leaves on older branches are scale-like and closely appressed (flattened together). The species is dioecious—male and wind-pollinated female flowers grow on separate plants, and only female flowers develop seed cones, which have fused scales and are round and berry-like, up to 1 cm (0.5 in) in diameter. Seed cones ripen to blue or black with a glaucous (waxy) coating, and typically contain 3 seeds. The seed cones of various Juniperus species make up 2 to 5% of the diet of 66 species of North American mammals. The species is often bird-dispersed, as seed germination rates may be higher following passage through a bird gut. Juniper “berries” are also edible by humans—they add the characteristic flavor to gin, and they are featured in teas and herbal supplements, and sometimes used as a flavoring in meat dishes. Juniperus virginiana, along with several other juniper species, is an alternate host for the fungal pathogen Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae, which causes cedar-apple rust. Cedar-apple rust has a complicated life cycle, but causes colorful orange galls on juniper trees, and rust-colored spots (turning to black) on the leaves of apple trees (Malus species) that grow in close proximity to juniper; the fungus can reduce apple production. (Adams 2008, Bailey et al. 1976, Lawson 1990, Martin et al. 1951, Wikipedia 2012.)

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Jacqueline Courteau
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Plant Associates

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Eastern red-cedar is among the first to invade abandoned fields and areas cleared for pasture. On deeper soils, persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) are associated invaders and may crowd it out. In cedar glades, the species is commonly associated with blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), winged elm (Ulmus alata), fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), Carolina buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana), rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), and Alabama supplejack (Berchemia scandens). Dry prairie grasses, including little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), yellow Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), and dropseed (Sporobolus spp.), along with numerous composites and legumes, are common herbaceous associates.
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Lawson, E.R. 1990. Juniperus virginiana L. Eastern Redcedar. In Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America: Vol. 1. Conifers. Agriculture Handbook 654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC.
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Jacqueline Courteau (Jacqueline Courteau)
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Broad-scale Impacts of Fire

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More info for the terms: prescribed fire, tree

Eastern redcedar seedlings and saplings are very susceptible to fire; they may be eliminated from a site following winter or spring prescribed burning [5,6]. Eastern redcedar mortality decreases as tree size increases, due to relatively thicker bark, sparse fine fuels beneath the canopy, and greater vertical distance of the upper foliage from lethal temperatures [25,37,57,93,94,95]. In a Nebraska prescribed fire study, eastern redcedar height-class mortality means were [94]:

Height-class Mortality <3.3 feet (1 m) 88% 3.3 to 6.6 feet (1-2 m) 60% 6.6 to 9.9 feet (2-3 m) 35% >9.9 feet (3 m) 10%

In Leavenworth Barrens Nature Preserve, Indiana, low-severity spring prescribed burns, exhibiting irregular burn patterns, were only effective in killing small diameter eastern redcedar (1.5 inches (4 cm) basal diameter), while larger trees were unaffected [1]. A study of prescribed fire in a Missouri eastern redcedar glade found that spring burning killed all trees up to 1.5 feet (0.5 m) tall but only 7% of the trees taller than 6.5 feet (2 m) [85].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
eastern redcedar

red cedar

aromatic cedar
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Description

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More info for the terms: cone, tree

The following description of eastern redcedar provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g. [114,129]).

Eastern redcedar is a relatively long-lived evergreen that may reach 450+ years [29,36,114,124]. It has 2 distinct growth forms. The most familiar form is narrowly conical with its branches growing up and out at a sharp angle to form a compact tree. The 2nd form is broadly conical with branches that spread widely. Both forms can be found throughout eastern redcedar's range [124]. Some authors describe the 2 forms in terms of age: young trees have the narrowly pyramidal or columnar shape with crowns becoming open and irregular as trees age [68]. Others suggest differences in crown form are attributed to variety, with J.v. var. virginiana displaying the columnar form and J.v. var. silicicola more broadly conical to rounded [29,36,68].

Eastern redcedar has thin, fibrous bark [29,55,129] that is 0.3 to 0.64 inch (0.75-1.6 cm) thick [8,28,29]. Leaves of eastern redcedar are borne in 2 forms. On seedlings and new twigs, leaves are pointed and awl-shaped. On mature branches, closely overlapping scale-like leaves fit tightly against the twig in opposite pairs [46,124,129].

Eastern redcedar generally has a shallow, fibrous root system [8,124], though roots of mature eastern redcedar trees may penetrate 25 feet (7.6 m) and lateral roots may reach 20 feet (6 m) [26,141]. Eastern redcedar seedlings have penetrating taproots and may later develop a lateral taproot system [24,79]. The deep, early taproot is usually replaced by an extensive, shallow root system with age [132]. Even 1st year seedlings begin developing a long fibrous root system, often at the expense of top growth [79]. The root system may be deep where soil permits [68], but on shallow and rocky soils eastern redcedar roots are very fibrous and tend to spread widely [79]. The development of a lateral taproot with age may also enable eastern redcedar to persist on outcrops and shallow soils [24].

Eastern redcedar seeds are borne in small, fleshy, berrylike cones [8,29], with 1 to 4 seeds per cone [44,68,79,124]. Eastern redcedar cones or fruits range from 0.12 to 0.33 inch (3-8 mm) long, with most 0.14 to 0.22 inch (3.5-5.5 mm) long [44,63,68,129]. Within this range, J.v. var. silicicola generally has smaller cone sizes than J.v. var. virginiana [36]. Seeds are 0.08-0.16 inch (2-4 mm) long [63,129].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Distribution

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Eastern redcedar's range extends from Nova Scotia west to Ontario, south through the northern Great Plains to eastern Texas, and east to northern Florida and the Atlantic coast [29,71,79,82]. J.v. var. virginiana occurs throughout eastern redcedar's range, with the exception of northern Florida [68,71]. J.v. var. silicicola is restricted to coastal dunes and river sandbanks of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, North and South Carolina, and northern Florida [3,71].

The Flora of North America provides a distributional map of eastern redcedar and its infrataxa.

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Fire Ecology

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More info for the terms: density, fire frequency, fire regime, fire suppression, forest, frequency, fuel, herbaceous, litter

Fire adaptations: Eastern redcedar does not survive on sites subject to frequent fire [131].

FIRE REGIMES: Eastern redcedar frequently occurs on sites topographically and edaphically protected from fire, including bluffs, rocky hillsides, shale barrens of Virginia and West Virginia, limestone glades of Tennessee, Virginia, Missouri and Arkansas; serpentine barrens of Pennsylvania and Maryland; sandstone cliffs; granite outcrops; sand dunes; and estuarine swamps [29]. Sites where eastern redcedar occurs as a persistent dominant are unlikely to support frequent fire due to rocky, shallow soils and low fuel loads [24]. On shallow soils where litter accumulation is limited, the lack of fuel protects many eastern redcedar stands even where fire occurrence is high [46]. However, in the absence of fire on adjoining uplands, eastern redcedar has been able to spread from these clifftop areas and invade uplands where it occupies a successional role [24]. On deep soils, competing vegetation produces enough litter to support fire. Sufficient fuels to carry fire are usually available on grasslands and old agricultural fields, and a single fire may remove eastern redcedar from a site [46].

Fire suppression has resulted in the invasion of eastern redcedar into grasslands and savannas [58,131]. In areas that once burned periodically, eastern redcedar was protected from fire on dry or rocky sites lacking sufficient herbaceous fuel to carry fire. As fire frequency decreased, eastern redcedar invaded adjacent and apparently stable plant communities. Subsequently, individual eastern redcedars have increased in size and coverage, and stand density has increased. Large trees and dense stands shade or otherwise inhibit growth of desired herbaceous vegetation [29]. In as little as 30 years after a fire, a treeless pasture can be converted to a closed canopy eastern redcedar forest [67,131].

A study of a cedar glade in southern Missouri found that fires occurred every 3.2 years during the presettlement period (1630-1870). After 1870, fire frequency decreased to 22 years [58]. In a post oak savanna in southern Missouri, a study of fire scars on post oak, shortleaf pine, and eastern redcedar indicated a mean fire free interval of 4.3 years between 1700 and 1810. The period between 1785 and 1810 showed the most extensive evidence of fire, and fire frequency declined after 1860 (coincident with European settlement) [57].

Fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where eastern redcedar is a common associate are summarized below. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) maple-beech-birch Acer-Fagus-Betula > 1000 sugar maple Acer saccharum > 1000 sugar maple-basswood Acer saccharum-Tilia americana > 1000 [131] bluestem prairie Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 74,97] Nebraska sandhills prairie Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium 97] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. 97,138] blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii 97,107,138] sugarberry-America elm-green ash Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica < 35 to 200 Atlantic white-cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides 35 to > 200 beech-sugar maple Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum > 1000 [131] juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana < 35 Ashe juniper Juniperus ashei < 35 cedar glades Juniperus virginiana 3-22 [58,97] yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera 131] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 97,100,138] jack pine Pinus banksiana 34] shortleaf pine Pinus echinata 2-15 shortleaf pine-oak Pinus echinata-Quercus spp. < 10 slash pine Pinus elliottii 3-8 slash pine-hardwood Pinus elliottii-variable 131] longleaf-slash pine Pinus palustris-P. elliottii 1-4 [89,131] longleaf pine-scrub oak Pinus palustris-Quercus spp. 6-10 [131] red pine (Great Lakes region) Pinus resinosa 10-200 (10**) [34,48] red-white-jack pine* Pinus resinosa-P. strobus-P. banksiana 10-300 [34,66] pocosin Pinus serotina 3-8 eastern white pine Pinus strobus 35-200 eastern white pine-eastern hemlock Pinus strobus-Tsuga canadensis 35-200 eastern white pine-northern red oak-red maple Pinus strobus-Quercus rubra-Acer rubrum 35-200 loblolly pine Pinus taeda 3-8 loblolly-shortleaf pine Pinus taeda-P. echinata 10 to < 35 Virginia pine Pinus virginiana 10 to < 35 Virginia pine-oak Pinus virginiana-Quercus spp. 10 to < 35 sycamore-sweetgum-American elm Platanus occidentalis-Liquidambar styraciflua-Ulmus americana 131] eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides 97] aspen-birch Populus tremuloides-Betula papyrifera 35-200 [34,131] black cherry-sugar maple Prunus serotina-Acer saccharum > 1000 oak-hickory Quercus-Carya spp. < 35 northeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. 10 to < 35 southeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. < 10 white oak-black oak-northern red oak Quercus alba-Q. velutina-Q. rubra < 35 northern pin oak Quercus ellipsoidalis < 35 bear oak Quercus ilicifolia < 35 > bur oak Quercus macrocarpa 131] oak savanna Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [97,131] shinnery Quercus mohriana 97] chestnut oak Q. prinus 3-8 northern red oak Quercus rubra 10 to < 35 post oak-blackjack oak Quercus stellata-Q. marilandica < 10 black oak Quercus velutina < 35 live oak Quercus virginiana 10 to131] little bluestem-grama prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. 97] eastern hemlock-yellow birch Tsuga canadensis-Betula alleghaniensis > 200 [131] elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. 34,131] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary
**mean
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Fire Management Considerations

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More info for the terms: backfire, crown fire, density, fire intensity, fire severity, forest, fuel, headfire, herbaceous, litter, prescribed fire, severity, tree

In the absence of fire, eastern redcedar thrives and may eventually dominate prairie or forest vegetation [1,5,13,17]. Prescribed fire is generally effective at controlling eastern redcedar invasion in grasslands [13,77]. Spring burning is appropriate for eastern redcedar treatment because leaf water content is relatively low in late spring [38]. Spring burns usually kill eastern redcedar up to 3.3 feet (1 m) tall [25,29,73,85], though larger trees up to 20 feet (6 m) are occasionally killed [95]. In an Illinois barren community, eastern redcedar seedlings and saplings were eliminated for at least 20 years following a spring prescribed fire [5]. In a Tennessee study over 20 years, eastern redcedar establishment was prevented using late winter prescribed surface fires annually and at 5-year intervals. On sites without fire treatment, eastern redcedar was recruited [32]. On a Texas site, prescribed burning reduced eastern redcedar from an average preburn density of 19 stems/acre (0-49 stems/ha) to 0 stems/acre (measured 4 months after the burn), with the unburned control averaging 21 stems/acre (54 stems/ha) [123].

Though widely used, broadcast burning disadvantages include incomplete control, a narrow annual treatment window, and integrated prefire (to accumulate fine fuel) and postfire (to allow recovery of grasses) grazing management required to improve results [93]. Degree of control depends on tree height, amount and distribution of herbaceous material that serves as fuel, backfire or headfire, and weather conditions favoring ignition of tree crowns [77].

Eastern redcedar trees <6 feet (1.8 m) tall are easily killed by prescribed burns with adequate grass fuel (~2,000 lbs/acre (2,268 kg/ha)) [17,39,77]. A Missouri study found that eastern redcedar mortality depended chiefly on the ratio of the amount of surface fuel to the amount of eastern redcedar foliage to be consumed (higher ratio = greater mortality). The ratio was affected both by size of the tree and density of the crown. Mortalities for eastern redcedar with very low, low, moderate, and high density crowns were 90%, 82%, 66%, and 35% respectively [85]. Eastern redcedar is somewhat less susceptible to fire as tree size increases, so fire intensity must increase to scorch the crown of taller trees [37,85,94]. Larger trees may escape fire due to thicker bark, higher canopies [93], and a low fuel to foliage ratio [85]. Headfires running with a 5- to 20-mph wind may be necessary to create flames that engulf the lower parts of large trees [77]. Controlling trees >6 feet tall often requires more fuel than the range's potential production [17].

Fire intensity and tree mortality are reduced further in dense stands of large trees because junipers reduce production of fine fuels [37]. The susceptibility of small eastern redcedar trees is enhanced because canopies of smaller trees do not have a large effect on surrounding herbaceous vegetation and stems are in close proximity to fine fuel [93]. In a Missouri burn, large tree mortality depended on amount of herbaceous fuel and density of crowns. Trees having crowns with sparse foliage exhibited 90% mortality. Trees having larger crowns with dense foliage showed 35% mortality. Light crowned trees had more foliage beneath them than did densely crowned trees. Temperatures the day of the burn ranged from 28 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit (-2 to 15 oC), the lowest relative humidity was 26%, and winds averaged 4.7 mph [29,85].

Two prescribed fires conducted 1 week apart on tallgrass prairie in Missouri had varying results. The 1st fire occurred with higher humidity and wetter fuels, resulting in a less severe burn that allowed even eastern redcedar stems 0.6 inches (1.5 cm) in diameter to survive. Drier fuel conditions and lower humidity during the 2nd burn resulted in relatively greater fire severity that killed 93 to 100% of eastern redcedar up to 3.5 inches in diameter [73].

Because eastern redcedar growth rate and resistance to prescribed fire treatments increases at 15 to 20 years, control of invading trees is most effective at less than 10 years of age and 6.6 feet (2 m) tall [4]. Eastern redcedar stands are often a mixture of tree sizes, and fuel loadings vary, so it is difficult to predict the extent of mortality following prescribed fire. In an Oklahoma study, eastern redcedar mortality for small (2 to 5 feet (0.6-1.5 m)), medium (5 to 8 feet (1.5-2.4 m)), and large (8 to 16 feet (2.4-4.9 m)) trees was 82, 54, and 39%, respectively. Fuel loads ranged from 1,300 to 6,100 lbs/acre (1,474-6,917 kg/ha), and tree mortality increased with increasing fuel load [39]. Studies at Leavenworth Barrens Nature Preserve found spring prescribed burning was ineffective at controlling eastern redcedar greater than 1.6 inches (4 cm) in diameter; however, tree girdling in the fall followed by prescribed burning in the spring resulted in >50% immediate reduction of eastern redcedar with most of the remaining trees dying during the 1st growing season after treatment. Subsequent burning virtually removed eastern redcedar from the site [1]. Use of defoliating herbicides prior to prescribed burning increases the leaf litter and may improve the effectiveness of fire treatments by increasing fire intensity [41,42]. Desiccation of eastern redcedar foliage increases crown scorch and mortality due to prescribed fire by promoting crown fire [37]. Individual tree ignition following prescribed burning may be effective for removing any surviving eastern redcedar [40,93]. Picloram and/or cutting treatments may also be effective in removing larger eastern redcedar not killed by prescribed burning [93,94,117].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [102] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: competition, hardwood, herbaceous, marsh, presence, shrub

Elevation and aspect: Eastern redcedar occurs from sea level to 5,000 feet (1,524 m) in elevation [29,111]. Although the most desirable elevation is not clearly delineated, eastern redcedar is found most often growing between 100 and 3,500 feet (30-1,070 m). It is notably absent below the 100 foot elevation zone in the southern and eastern parts of its range [79].

Aspect influences the character of eastern redcedar stands. On north and east slopes, there may be fewer eastern redcedar trees because of hardwood competition. However, the eastern redcedar that does occur on north and east slopes may be taller than the trees found on south and west slopes [46]. Eastern redcedar is generally more prevalent on south and south-west facing slopes [111]. In the western part of its range, however, eastern redcedar may more likely be found on north-facing slopes and along streambanks where there is some protection from high temperatures and drought [79]. On exposed areas in the far northern portion of its range, eastern redcedar's growth habit may be reduced to a low shrub [68].

Climate: Widespread distribution of eastern redcedar attests to its ability to grow under a range of climatic conditions. Precipitation averages 15 inches (380 mm) in the northwestern part of its range and 60 inches (1,520 mm) in the southeastern parts of its range [29,79,82,110]. Average annual maximum temperature ranges from 90 to 115 degrees Fahrenheit (32-46 oC) and average minimum temperature ranges from -45 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit (-43 to -7 oC). The growing season varies from about 120 to 250 days [79,82].

Soils and topography: Throughout its range, eastern redcedar grows under diverse site conditions: in deep and shallow soils, on ridgetops, and in valleys [46,47,64,79,114]. Eastern redcedar grows in such varied habitats as thin, rocky soils and dry outcrops to finer textured, saturated soils of swamps [18,63,64,79,82,110,132], though it is not tolerant of flooding [63]. Eastern redcedar is common on shallow soils (6 to 8 inches (15-20 cm) thick) on limestone or sandstone bedrock [29,31,47,68]. Where soil averages less than 12 inches (30 cm) deep, eastern redcedar seldom grows taller than 20 to 30 feet (6-9 m). Where soil depth is 12 to 24 inches (30-60 cm), it reaches 35 feet (10.7 m) in approximately 50 years [8]. Optimal site conditions for eastern redcedar are deep (>24 inches), moist, well-drained alluvial soils, where it may reach heights of 55 to 60 feet (16.7-18.3 m) after 50 years [46,79,82].

Eastern redcedar grows on alkaline or acidic soils where soil pH ranges from 4.7 to 7.8 [8,46,79,110]. High soil acidity does not deter eastern redcedar establishment [46,124], though it may slow growth [84]. Combinations of low phosphorus, high calcium and pH>7 in particular may favor eastern redcedar [24]. However, Lawson [79] reports that although eastern redcedar will grow on slightly alkaline soils, it is not particularly tolerant of higher pH levels. Eastern redcedar's occurrence on neutral to alkaline soils may be a result (rather than a cause) of the tree's presence [46]. Soils in eastern redcedar stands tend to become neutral or slightly alkaline because the high calcium content of the tree's foliage can change the pH of the surface soil in a relatively short time [29,46,79].

Eastern redcedar (primarily J.v. var. virginiana) is commonly found on rough upland topography, including moderate to steep slopes and eroded limestone slopes and knobs [3,8,11,13,24,111,111,124]. It frequently forms dense stands on exposed bluffs and ridges [18]. Southern redcedar occurs predominantly on coastal dunes, swales, shell mounds, brackish flats, and floodplains [3,36].

Tolerances: Southern redcedar is saline tolerant, growing on brackish marsh sites in southeastern U.S. [49], barrier island swales subject to saltwater flooding [122,136], and on coastal dunes subject to salt spray [64,69].

Eastern redcedar grows where water is near the surface or where soil moisture fluctuates from near saturation in winter to extreme dryness in summer [29]. It has high drought tolerance [29,63,92,132], enhanced by the presence of rapidly produced taproots as well as an extensive fibrous root system [29]. The relative drought tolerance of eastern redcedar compared with some herbaceous species (e.g. big bluestem) may contribute to its successful invasion of tallgrass prairie in the absence of fire [9].

Eastern redcedar is frost hardy [63,79,132], though newly established seedlings are subject to frost heaving and foliage may occasionally be damaged by winter injury [79].

Eastern redcedar is moderately shade intolerant/sun-adapted [18,79,92], though seedlings may survive for several years under a sparse canopy [13,79,119,132].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Habitat: Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

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SAF COVER TYPES [43]:





1 Jack pine

14 Northern pin oak

15 Red pine

19 Gray birch-red maple

20 White pine-northern red oak-red maple

21 Eastern white pine

22 White pine-hemlock

23 Eastern hemlock

24 Hemlock-yellow birch

25 Sugar maple-beech-yellow birch

26 Sugar maple-basswood

27 Sugar maple

37 Northern white-cedar

39 Black ash-American elm-red maple

40 Post oak-blackjack oak

42 Bur oak

43 Bear oak

44 Chestnut oak

45 Pitch pine

46 Eastern redcedar

50 Black locust

51 White pine-chestnut oak

52 White oak-black oak-northern red oak

53 White oak

55 Northern red oak

57 Yellow-poplar

58 Yellow-poplar-eastern hemlock

59 Yellow-poplar-white oak-northern red oak

60 Beech-sugar maple

62 Silver maple-American elm

63 Cottonwood

64 Sassafras-persimmon

65 Pin oak-sweetgum

66 Ashe juniper-redberry (Pinchot) juniper

67 Mohrs (shin) oak

70 Longleaf pine

71 Longleaf pine-scrub oak

72 Southern scrub oak

73 Southern redcedar

74 Cabbage palmetto

75 Shortleaf pine

76 Shortleaf pine-oak

78 Virginia pine-oak

79 Virginia pine

80 Loblolly pine-shortleaf pine

81 Loblolly pine

82 Loblolly pine-hardwood

83 Longleaf pine-slash pine

84 Slash pine

85 Slash pine-hardwood

87 Sweetgum-yellow-poplar

88 Willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf (laurel) oak

89 Live oak

92 Sweetgum-willow oak

93 Sugarberry-American elm-green ash

94 Sycamore-sweetgum-American elm

97 Atlantic white-cedar

104 Sweetbay-swamp tupelo-redbay

108 Red maple

109 Hawthorn

110 Black oak
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

ECOSYSTEMS [50]:





FRES10 White-red-jack pine

FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine

FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine

FRES14 Oak-pine

FRES15 Oak-hickory

FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES18 Maple-beech-birch

FRES19 Aspen-birch

FRES31 Shinnery

FRES32 Texas savanna

FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES37 Mountain meadows

FRES38 Plains grasslands

FRES39 Prairie
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Habitat: Plant Associations

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

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KUCHLER [75] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:





K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

K067 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

K068 Wheatgrass-grama-buffalo grass

K069 Bluestem-grama prairie

K071 Shinnery

K073 Northern cordgrass prairie

K074 Bluestem prairie

K075 Nebraska Sandhills prairie

K076 Blackland prairie

K081 Oak savanna

K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100

K083 Cedar glades

K084 Cross Timbers

K086 Juniper-oak savanna

K087 Mesquite-oak savanna

K089 Black Belt

K095 Great Lakes pine forest

K098 Northern floodplain forest

K100 Oak-hickory forest

K101 Elm-ash forest

K104 Appalachian oak forest

K106 Northern hardwoods

K109 Transition between K104 and K106

K110 Northeastern oak-pine forest

K111 Oak-hickory-pine

K112 Southern mixed forest

K113 Southern floodplain forest
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

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SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [109]:




601 Bluestem prairie

602 Bluestem-prairie sandreed

603 Prairie sandreed-needlegrass

604 Bluestem-grama prairie

605 Sandsage prairie

606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

610 Wheatgrass

708 Bluestem-dropseed

709 Bluestem-grama

710 Bluestem prairie

717 Little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass

719 Mesquite-liveoak-seacoast bluestem

730 Sand shinnery oak

731 Cross timbers-Oklahoma

732 Cross timbers-Texas (little bluestem-post oak)

733 Juniper-oak

801 Savanna

802 Missouri prairie

803 Missouri glades

804 Tall fescue

805 Riparian

809 Mixed hardwood and pine

810 Longleaf pine-turkey oak hills

812 North Florida flatwoods

813 Cutthroat seeps

815 Upland hardwood hammocks
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Immediate Effect of Fire

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Eastern redcedar is susceptible to fire kill because of its short bole, thin bark, shallow roots, inability to resprout, and highly combustible evergreen foliage, which extends to the ground, particularly in young open-grown trees [8,21,23,31,57,63,77,79,139].
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

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Many birds and small mammals eat the berrylike cones of eastern redcedar, especially in winter [8,12,17,110]. Wildlife species that eat eastern redcedar fruits include waxwings, bobwhite quail, ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, ring-necked pheasant, wild turkeys, rabbits, foxes, raccoons, skunks, opossums, and coyotes [46,63,79,98]. Deer may browse the abundant foliage of eastern redcedar when no other food is available [46,63,79,105], and are more likely to browse reproductively-active, mature than juvenile eastern redcedars [121].

Palatability/nutritional value: Eastern redcedar fruits are high in crude fat and crude fiber, moderate in calcium, and high in total carbohydrates [79]. Though considered poor quality forage [79], eastern redcedar foliage has relatively high calcium content, ranging from 1.9 to 2.6% on sites in the Ozarks [8].

Chemical analysis of eastern redcedar browse in the Missouri Ozarks (% dry matter) [88]:

Protein Fat Fiber C P K 7.08 11.02 24.42 1.17 0.12 0.49

Cover value: As an evergreen, eastern redcedar provides good nesting and roosting cover for many birds [17,63,79]. These include nest sites for Cooper's hawks [135] and roosting sites for eastern screech-owls [15,35], short-eared owls [19], and saw-whet owls [120]. Dense thickets of eastern redcedar provide good escape and hiding cover for deer and small mammals [17,63,79].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Key Plant Community Associations

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Eastern redcedar commonly occurs in mixed stands with shortleaf pine
(Pinus echinata), Virginia pine (P. virginiana), northern
red oak (Quercus rubra), white oak (Q. alba), black oak
(Q. velutina), blackjack oak (Q. marilandica), hickories
(Carya spp.), and black walnut (Juglans nigra) [132]. In the
northeastern United States, eastern redcedar frequently occurs on rocky
ridgetops with shagbark hickory (C. ovata), eastern hophornbeam
(Ostrya virginiana), downy serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea),
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), bristleleaf sedge
(Carex eburnea), and Parlin's pussytoes (Antennaria parlinii) [104].


Where eastern redcedar dominates, species diversity is commonly low [24]. Pure
stands of eastern redcedar occur throughout its range, primarily on dry uplands or
abandoned farmlands [63,79], though hardwood species may also occur on these sites [104].
In southern Appalachian montane cedar-hardwood woodlands, eastern redcedar occurs
with bluestems (Andropogon spp.), little bluestem, sedges (Carex spp.),
panicgrass (Dichanthelium spp.), yellow honeysuckle (Lonicera flava),
cliff stonecrop (Sedum glaucophyllum), white ash (Fraxinus americana),
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), slippery elm (Ulmus rubra),
honey-locust (Gleditsia tricanthos), chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii),
chestnut oak (Q. prinus), pignut hickory (Carya glabra),
and mockernut hickory (C. tomentosa) [24,111]. Pure stands are
also common in the northern Great Plains, though the stands may eventually be invaded
by other woody species [93].




In the prairie ecosystem, common associates of eastern redcedar include
little bluestem, big bluestem (A. gerardii var. gerardii), sideoats grama
(Bouteloua curtipendula), blue grama (B. gracilis), western wheatgrass
(Pascopyrum smithii), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), switchgrass
(Panicum virgatum), prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepsis), gray goldenrod
(Solidago nemoralis), sedges, flowering spurge (Euphorbia corollata),
smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), leadplant (Amorpha canescens), poison-ivy
(Toxicodendron radicans), common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus),
silver buffaloberry (Shepherdia argentea), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana),
common juniper (J. communis), gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa), currants
(Ribes spp.), and Rubus species [93,126].



Where stands of eastern redcedar are interspersed with grasslands, "cedar
glades" may develop. Cedar glades are found in the Ozark region, north to
Wisconsin, and east to Illinois and Kentucky. Though eastern redcedar dominates
and may occur in almost pure stands in these glades [11,31,46,58,78], common
associates in midwestern glade communities include little bluestem, big bluestem,
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), hairy grama (B. hirsuta),
sideoats grama, switchgrass, prairie Junegrass (Koeleria macrantha),
indiangrass, dropseeds (Sporobolus spp.), blackjack oak,
post oak (Q. stellata), white ash, winged elm (U. alata),
fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), Carolina buckthorn (Frangula caroliniana),
rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), Alabama supplejack (Berchemia scandens),
and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) [11,46,47,58,78]. In Kentucky cedar
glades, eastern redcedar commonly occurs with big bluestem, little bluestem, purple threeawn
(Aristida purpurea), indiangrass, nodding onion (Allium cernuum), Carolina larkspur
(Delphinium carolinianum ssp. virescens), blue wild indigo
(Baptisia australis), roundhead lespedeza (Lespedeza capitata), flowering spurge,
spotted sandmat (Chamaesyce maculata), slenderstalk beeblossom (Gaura filipes),
necklace gladecress (Leavenworthia torulosa), Michaux's gladecress (L. uniflora),
little hogweed (Portulaca oleracea), bearded flatsedge (Cyperus squarrosus), and
widowscross (Sedum pulchellum) [10]. In Wisconsin cedar glades, common associates include
little bluestem, big bluestem, flowering spurge, leadplant, hairy grama, Michaux's stitchwort
(Minuartia michauxii var. michauxii), gray goldenrod, basswood
(Tilia americana), gray birch (Betula populifolia), common juniper, and creeping
juniper [31].





Classifications identifying eastern redcedar as a plant community dominant
include those listed below:



Kansas [78]
Kentucky [10]

New York [104]
North Carolina [111]
Wisconsin [31]

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Life Form

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Tree-shrub
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Other uses and values

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The aromatic oils found in eastern redcedar heartwood repel clothing moths and are widely used in perfumes [4,14,63,79,79]. Aromatic oils are toxic to some ant species (Argentine ant and odorous house ant), and eastern redcedar mulch is effective in discouraging ant colonization [87]. Eastern redcedar oils are also effective in repelling Formosan subterranean termites [142]. Heartwood extractives may inhibit growth of fungi and bacteria [83]. Eastern redcedar heartwood has approximately 10 times the oil extractives of sapwood [137]. Due to a higher proportion of heartwood to sapwood in closed-canopy stands of eastern redcedar, trees grown under closed stand conditions may contain 4 to 5 times as much oil in the bolewood as open-grown trees of the same diameter [137].

Eastern redcedar is commonly planted in shelterbelts, windbreaks, and snow fences [17,46,52,63,79,81,117]. It also used for Christmas trees [17,46,79] and ornamental plantings [52,63].

Wood Products: Eastern redcedar heartwood is resistant to attack by termites and has greater commercial value than sapwood [4]. The principal product of eastern redcedar is fenceposts [8,110,117], though it is also used for lumber [17], poles, boats, paneling, closets, chests, and pencils [63,117]. The aromatic heartwood is commonly used for chests or closet lining [68,110]. On most sites, eastern redcedar grows slowly, and long rotations are required to produce conventional sawlogs. However, because the wood is used for small items and there is wide latitude in acceptable defects, shortening of rotations and intermediate harvesting of merchantable wood are possible. About 20 to 30 years are required for posts and 40 to 60 years for sawtimber [79].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Phenology

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Eastern redcedar has small, inconspicuous flowers that appear from early to late spring [46,132]. Pollination occurs from February (south and east) to May (north and west), and fertilization occurs about a month later. Cones develop on male and female trees in the fall [79], and seeds mature in 1 season, from late July to mid-November depending on location [44,68,79,114,127,132]. As the ovulate cone develops, greenish fruit-scales form the outer fleshy protective coat of the berrylike cone. Cones change color from green to greenish-white to whitish-blue and finally to bluish as the season progresses. The cones do not open and will remain on the tree until early spring [79].
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Plant Response to Fire

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Seedlings may be abundant following fire [139].
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Post-fire Regeneration

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More info for the terms: adventitious, initial off-site colonizer, tree

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [115]:
Tree without adventitious bud/root crown
Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: competition, density, dioecious, hardwood, litter, monoecious, natural, seed, tree, xeric

Eastern redcedar reproduces solely by seed; there is no natural asexual regeneration. Eastern redcedar trees reach sexual maturity at approximately 10 years [29,79]. Reproductive activity may be influenced by tree size and site characteristics. A study in the Tennessee Valley found that in a managed parkland, 86% of eastern redcedar >4 inches (10 cm) dbh were reproductively active and the sex ratio was 1:1. In mature xeric forests on the rocky mountainsides only 41% of eastern redcedar >4 inches dbh were reproductively active, and the male:female sex ratio was 2.2:1. The likelihood of reproductive activity 1) was lower on the mountainside than in the parkland, 2) increased with tree diameter and height, 3) increased with diameter growth rate, and 4) decreased with shading by neighboring trees [80].

Breeding system: Eastern redcedar is dioecious [29,46,55,63,79,110,124,127]. Though rare, monoecious eastern redcedars have been found [55,110,124]. Male trees tend to be taller and have greater diameter growth than female trees, which may contribute to their success as pollen donors [128].

Pollination: Eastern redcedar pollen is wind-dispersed [29].

Seed production: Mature eastern redcedar trees produce some seeds nearly every year, but good crops occur only every 2 or 3 years [46,79,127]. Eastern redcedar produces most seed between the ages of 25 and 75, though seed production can occur in trees as young as 10 years and as old as 100+ years [46].

Seed dispersal: Eastern redcedar seed is dispersed by birds and small mammals [8,13,17,46,79,93,119]. As a result, seedling density is generally greater near trees or along fencelines that provide perching sites [29]. Seeds pass through bird digestive tracts within 30 minutes of ingestion, suggesting many seeds will be deposited near their source trees rather than transported long distances. Seeds mature and are available to birds in winter and early spring when other food is scarce and populations of wintering birds are high [93].

Seed banking: No information is available on this topic.

Germination: Seeds that pass through animal digestive tracts and those that remain on the ground beneath the trees may germinate the 1st or 2nd spring after dispersal. Most germination of eastern redcedar seed occurs in early spring of the 2nd year after dispersal [46,79,129]. Delayed germination is caused by embryo dormancy and possibly by an impermeable seedcoat. Passage through an animal's digestive tract speeds seed germination [46].

Seedling establishment/growth: Most natural regeneration of eastern redcedar takes place on relatively poor hardwood or pine (Pinus spp.) sites, along fence rows, or in pastures that are not burned or mowed. Seedlings are commonly established in rather open hardwood stands, adjacent to older seed-bearing eastern redcedar trees [79]. Eastern redcedar seedlings are shade intolerant, so survival is better under open stand conditions [46]. If competition from an overstory is severe, eastern redcedar seedlings may not survive. Once established, however, eastern redcedar survives for extended periods under severe competition [79]. Eastern redcedar seedling establishment may be improved following the removal of litter [46]. On very dry sites, most seedlings are found in crevices, between layers of limestone, and in other protected places where the microclimate is most favorable [46,79]. Seedling development is relatively slow on these adverse sites, although eastern redcedar seedlings withstand drought well [79]. Established seedlings are drought tolerant due to their taproot and relatively small leaf surface [46,132]. During the 1st year, seedlings do not produce much height growth but develop a long fibrous root system [46,79].

Eastern redcedar growth is relatively slow [46,63], though stem volume, sapwood, and heartwood growth rates of eastern redcedar increase when trees reach 15 to 20 years [4]. Trees 20 to 30 years old are generally 18 to 26 feet (5.5-8 m) tall and 2 to 3 inches (5-7.5 cm) in diameter [46,63,79]. Mature trees typically reach 40-70 feet (12-21 m) tall, with a short bole 12 to 28 inches (30-71 cm) in diameter [46,55,63,79,79,86]. Growth rates of eastern redcedar depend largely on stand density, competition from other species, and site quality. These factors probably reflect competition for available soil moisture on most sites [79]. On "good" sites [46], trees may reach 120 feet (36 m) tall and 4 feet (1.2 m) in diameter [46,79,82]. On dry sites in the prairie region, trees 110 years old are often less than 20 feet (6 m) tall [46,82]. On thin soils where growth is particularly slow, eastern redcedar may have diameters <2 inches (5 cm) after 50 years [31]. An example of aboveground biomass and productivity from 3 Kansas eastern redcedar stands is presented below [90]:

Age
(years) Density
(trees/ha) Total aboveground biomass
(kg/ha) Biomass C
(kg/ha) Biomass N
(kg/ha) Litter fall production
(kg/ha/yr) Annual aboveground net primary productivity
(kg/ha/yr) 35 1,733 114,120 61,563 487 5,190 9,796 40 1,900 120,739 65,451 517 5,210 10,442 80 860 210,952 106,192 849 4,610 7,247

Increased stand density generally results in taller eastern redcedar trees [46].

Asexual regeneration: There is no natural asexual reproduction in eastern redcedar. It does not resprout after complete cutting or burning [29,79,132].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [16]:





14 Great Plains

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

States or Provinces

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(key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES AL AR CO CT DE FL GA IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI MN MS MO NE NH NJ NY NC ND OH OK PA RI SC SD TN TX VT VA WV WI DC  
CANADA MB NS ON PQ
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Successional Status

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More info for the terms: climax, cover, forest, seed, succession

Eastern redcedar is both a pioneer and an invader [13,30,134]. It colonizes relatively open patches of eroded bare ground and is most competitive on exposed dry sites; disturbed areas including abandoned pastures and cultivated fields, eroded areas, and open woods thinned by timber harvest [29,36,46,68,91,103,127,134,140]. Eastern redcedar does not establish well in more competitive, denser vegetation cover that occurs with less erosion or later in succession [140]. However, in Texas savannas, eastern redcedar establishment may by facilitated by post oak trees, which are then overtopped and outcompeted by eastern redcedar [27].

Eastern redcedar a well-known invader in the prairie region [13,18,30,93]. Invasion into prairie grasslands is attributed primarily to absence of fire [9,22,93,117], and may be exacerbated by certain grazing practices [22,127]. A readily available seed source resulting from eastern redcedar plantings and ability to capitalize across a wide range of environmental conditions have also encouraged eastern redcedar establishment in grasslands [93]. Eastern redcedar is thus an early to mid-seral component in cedar glades that result from the invasion of grasslands [11,18,58]. These glades eventually succeed to oak (Quercus spp.) -hardwood forests [11]. Eastern redcedar glades may persist as subclimax vegetation where soil development is low and rock outcrops are abundant. The scarcity of soil precludes establishment of other species [99].

Eastern redcedar forms persistent, stable communities in limestone outcrop areas of the Interior Low Plateaus and the Limestone Valleys and Uplands Soils Province. These communities have been regarded as climax, subclimax, and edaphic climax. In particular, eastern redcedar stands may persist as subclimax forest on eroded limestone slopes and knobs [11]. Persistent stands occurring on outcrops are subject to windthrow due to exposure and shallow soil. The result is a periodic opening of the stand favoring continued eastern redcedar establishment [24].

On the Atlantic coast, eastern redcedar may promote recruitment of mid-successional woody seedlings (and impact their distribution) passively through distribution of seeds by perching birds. Recruitment may be actively promoted through increased seedling survival due to eastern redcedar alterations in microclimate and edaphic factors. In a Virginia study, fleshy-fruited seeds of woody species were more abundant in the seed bank beneath eastern redcedar than in exposed sites. Photosynthetically active radiation was reduced under eastern redcedar canopies, and soil temperature fluctuations were moderated during the growing season. Moisture content, organic matter, and chlorides were higher for soils under eastern redcedar than in exposed sites [70].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Synonyms

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Sabina virginiana (L.) Antoine [133]
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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Taxonomy

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The currently accepted scientific name of eastern redcedar is Juniperus
virginiana L. (Cupressaceae) [33,36,53,54,55,68,71,76,101,110,114,118,129,130]. The two recognized varieties of this species are J. virginiana
var. virginiana [71,129] and southern redcedar (J. virginiana var.
silicicola (Small) J. Silba) [71]. Adams [3] described southern redcedar
as a variety of eastern redcedar based on similarity of morphological
characteristics and volatile leaf oils. However, southern redcedar
has previously been described and is still accepted by some authors as a
distinct species, J. silicicola [101]. This species summary refers
to both varieties of eastern redcedar; information specific to variety is noted.



Hybrid swarms of eastern redcedar and creeping juniper (J. horizontalis)
occur on the coast of Maine and in the Driftless Area according to morphological,
terpene, electrophoretic, and cytological data analysis [44,96,106]. Based on
morphological variation, hybrid swarms of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper
(J. scopulorum) occur in the Texas panhandle and the northern Great Plains
[45,60,61,65]. Also based on studies of morphological characteristics, hybrid swarms
of eastern redcedar and Ashe juniper (J. ashei) reportedly occur in Oklahoma,
Texas, and Missouri [59,62,65]. However, in a study of terpenoids, Adams and Turner [2]
found no evidence of hybridization between eastern redcedar and Ashe juniper.

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

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More info for the terms: fruit, peat, seed, stratification, tree

Eastern redcedar establishes well on abandoned surface mines, agricultural fields, and logging sites [18,84] and is used to recover highly eroded, nutrient-poor soils [124]. Use of eastern redcedar for rehabilitating strip-mines is most effective in calcareous spoils due to its slow growth on acid banks [84]. Many cultivars of eastern redcedar are available, with variations primarily based on overall tree shape and the color of female cones [124]. Greater planting success is likely with seed sources of geographic proximity [108]. Planting recommendations include storing seed in fruit for 1 year, then cleaning, scarifying and sowing in the fall. Alternatively, seed can be stored in fruit for 1 year then cleaned and stratified in peat for 100 days at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5 oC) and sown in the spring or stratified outdoors in the shade from May until sown in the fall [63].

Seeds of junipers (Juniperus spp.) have both seed coat and embryo dormancy [81]. Maximum germination of eastern redcedar in minimum time may be achieved by treatment to increase seedcoat permeability and stratification [46]. Eastern redcedar germination is improved by a combination of warm and cold stratification. Either 45 days of warm stratification followed by 60 days of cold stratification, or 60 days warm followed by 45 days of cold stratification yield best results. In lab tests, germination without stratification did not occur at temperatures above 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 oC) [14]. For storage, cleaned eastern redcedar seeds should be dried to 7% moisture content and stored at 20 degrees Fahrenheit (-7 oC) [46].

Commercial nurseries use propagation by rooted cuttings and grafting for vegetative reproduction of eastern redcedar [79,127].

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Anderson, Michelle D. 2003. Juniperus virginiana. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/junvir/all.html

Associated Forest Cover

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Pure stands of eastern redcedar are scattered throughout the primary range of the species. Most of these stands are on abandoned farm lands or drier upland sites. The forest cover type Eastern Redcedar (Society of American Foresters Type 46) is widespread and therefore has many associates (10).

Variants of the type are eastern redcedar-pine, eastern redcedar-hardwood, and eastern redcedar-pine-hardwood. The eastern redcedar-pine variant is composed of eastern redcedar and either shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) or Virginia pine (P. virginiana) and is found throughout the southern half of its range. The eastern redcedar-hardwood variant is found throughout the central part of its range and includes a mixture of red (Quercus rubra) and white (Q. alba) oaks, hickories (Carya spp.), black walnut (Juglans nigra), and other hardwoods. The third variant, eastern redcedar-pine-hardwood, includes all of the above species associations (15). Eastern redcedar appears as a minor component of several other forest cover types.

Eastern redcedar is among the first to invade abandoned fields and areas cleared for pasture (25). On deeper soils, persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and sassafras (Sassafras albidum) are associated invaders and may crowd it out. In cedar glades, the species is commonly associated with blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), winged elm (Ulmus alata), fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica), Carolina buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana), rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), and Alabama supplejack (Berchemia scandens). Little bluestem (Andropogon scoparius), big bluestem (A. gerardi), yellow Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), dropseed (Sporobolus spp.), and numerous composites and legumes are common herbaceous plants.

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Climate

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The wide natural distribution of eastern redcedar clearly indicates its ability to grow under varying and extreme climatic conditions. Average annual precipitation varies from about 380 mm (15 in) in the northwestern section to 1520 mm (60 in) in the southern parts of its range (40). Throughout the eastern redcedar range, average precipitation from April through September measures from 380 mm (15 in) to 760 mm (30 in). This suggests that summer precipitation may be more limiting to the species than average annual precipitation. Average annual snowfall ranges from a trace to more than 254 cm (100 in).

Average annual temperatures vary from about 4° C (40° F) in the north to 20° C (68° F) in the southern part of the botanical range. Average annual maximum temperature ranges only from about 32° C (90° F) to 41° C (105° F), but average minimum temperature ranges from -43° C (-45° F) to -7° C (20° F). The growing season varies from about 120 to 250 days.

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Damaging Agents

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Fire is probably the worst enemy of eastern redcedar. The thin bark and roots near the ground surface are easily injured by fires. Some natural protection against fire exists because its foliage does not bum well and litter accumulation is minimal under stands on thin soils (11,15).

Several insects damage eastern redcedar trees but rarely cause serious permanent damage (5). Roots of seedlings are very susceptible to attack by nematodes and grubs. The foliage is eaten by bagworms (Thyridopteryx ephemeraeformis) and spruce spider mites (Oligonychus ununguis), both of which can completely defoliate trees. The eastern juniper bark beetle (Phloeosinus dentatus) attacks the species but usually does not kill trees except when the attack is associated with the root rot fungus, Heterobasidion annosum. Another bark beetle (Phloeosinus canadensis) may feed on eastern redcedar. Several boring insects, including the black-horned juniper borer (Callidium texanum), cedartree borer (Semanotus ligneus), cypress and cedar borer (Oeme rigida), and pales weevil (Hylobius pales) will attack eastern redcedar. The juniper midge (Contarinia juniperina) is a gall insect pest of redcedar which bores into the twigs at the base of needles and kills the portion beyond the entrance hole. In addition to pales weevil, two other weevils, the arborvitae weevil (Phyllobius intrusus) and the strawberry root weevil (Otiorhynchus ovatus), feed on roots of eastern redcedar. The latter two weevils are also leaf feeders, along with the juniper webworm (Dichomeris marginella); a wax moth (Coleotechnites juniperella); a leaf roller (Choristoneura houstonana), a pest of windbreak and ornamental plantings; and a sawfly (Monoctenus melliceps). The Fletcher scale (Lecanium fletcheri) and juniper scale (Carulaspis juniperi) are two other commonly occurring insects that attack junipers.

Eastern redcedar, especially when weakened by stress or insects, is very susceptible to damage by the root rot fungus, Heterobasidion annosum. This disease is thought to cause the greatest damage over much of its range. Cubical rot fungi (Fomes subroseus and Daedalea juniperina) and juniper pocket rot fungus (Pyrofomes demidoffii) enter eastern redcedars through dead branch stubs and attack the heartwood. Several other minor heart-rot fungi infect eastern redcedar (21).

The major stem and foliage diseases of eastern redcedar are fungi known as cedar rusts in the genus Gymnosporangium. The most commonly known and widely spread species is cedar apple rust (G. juniperi-virginianae), which attacks trees in all stages of development. Because it is an alternate host to this disease, the presence of redcedar is a problem to apple growers. Other common species are G. clavipes, G. globosum, G. effusum, and G. nidus-avis. The latter fungus is widely distributed and produces witches' brooms (21). Important foliage diseases include Phomopsis blight (Phomopsis juniperovora) and Cercospora sequoiae blight, which also attack seedlings. Phomopsis blight has been difficult to control in nurseries, but newer developments show promise (12,32). Both blights can cause major losses to eastern redcedar in the field, but Phomopsis blight is not a serious problem after seedlings reach age 4.

Newly established seedlings are subject to frost-heaving, and foliage may occasionally be damaged by winter injury (23). Mice and rabbits may damage young eastern redcedar seedlings. Livestock generally avoid biting seedlings or trees but may trample the plants and their roots while grazing. During times of scarce food, deer will heavily browse eastern redcedar and destroy most reproduction (11,20). Redcedar withstands the weight of snow fairly well, but it has only moderate resistance to ice damage (8). Although the species is generally very tolerant to drought and temperature extremes, the author observed considerable mortality in west central Arkansas associated with the extremely hot, dry summer of 1980.

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Flowering and Fruiting

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Eastern redcedar is a dioecious species, and trees probably reach sexual maturity at about 10 years. Staminate strobili or conelets begin to develop on male trees at the tips of axillary branches of new scale-leaves. Pollen grains are formed by late September in conelets having 10 to 12 entire-margined sporophylls. Staminate strobili turn a conspicuous yellowish brown when they reach maturity during winter, and thus male trees are readily distinguished from ovulate ones.

Small green conelets begin to develop by early fall or late summer on ovulate trees but grow very little during the winter. They are borne terminally on axillary branches of the new scale-leaves but do not become conspicuous until late February to early spring. At this time the microsporangial walls of the staminate conelets split longitudinally, discharging the mature pollen. Pollen grains lodge at the end of the micropyle of the many ovules in the conelet. Pollination is complete in a few days when the conelet closes.

Growth of the pollen tube is slow at first but becomes active by late May or mid-June. Fertilization occurs in June and the mature embryo is full grown in about 2 months, anytime from late July to mid-November, depending on location. As the ovulate cone develops, greenish fruit-scales form the outer fleshy protective coat of the berrylike cone. Cones change color from green to greenish white to whitish blue and finally to bluish as the season progresses.

Each cone or fruit contains one to four (occasionally more) rounded or angled brownish seeds, 2 to 4 mm (0.08 to 0.16 in) long, often with longitudinal pits. The seed coat has a thick and bony outer layer and a thin, membranous inner layer (23,47).

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Genetics

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Population Differences Eastern redcedar displays great diversity in phenotypic characteristics such as tree form, foliage color, and crown shape. Van Haverbeke's study (41) included a total of 43 gross morphological, foliage, cone, and seed characteristics and biochemical data derived from cone pulp. He points out that much of the research on morphological characteristics of eastern redcedar has been in the central and western parts of the species' range. More recently, however, information on genetic variation in natural stands in the eastern part of its range has been obtained (13). Natural variation in the species may have been modified by past commercial exploitation of natural stands and by the selection, propagation, and distribution of clones (47).

Races and Hybrids Two distinct varieties have been recognized in the United States. Juniperus virginiana var. crebra (Fernald) is a northern form having a narrow crown and slightly pitted seeds. The other variety, J. virginiana var. ambigens, is an intermediate form between eastern redcedar and creeping juniper, J. horizontalis Moench (15).

Although there are no recognized hybrids at this time, evidence is mounting that hybridization does occur. Population studies, especially in the western part of eastern redcedar's range, suggest that considerable introgression and perhaps blending of genetic differences have occurred whenever species' ranges overlap; and that J. virginiana readily hybridizes with J. scopulorum, J. horizontalis, and J. ashei, resulting in juniper populations that contain the germ plasm of two or three species (15). Research in the Ozarks, however, showed no evidence of introgression into J. ashei by J. virginiana where J. ashei was surrounded by J. virginiana (2).

The relatively strong influence of J. scopulorum germ plasm in the western part of the eastern redcedar population suggests that the entire population in the area studied is of hybrid origin (41). This west-to-east flow of J. scopulorum germ plasm was further supported by Flake, Urbatch, and Turner (14), who sampled many of Van Haverbeke's sample trees for terpenoid analysis. He proposed an alternative hypothesis that eastern redcedar of eastern and central North America may have been derived from the western juniper complex.

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Growth and Yield

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Growth rates of eastern redcedar depend largely on site quality, competition from other species, and stand density. These factors probably reflect competition for available soil moisture on most sites. Trees 20 to 30 years old are generally 5 to 8 m (18 to 26 ft) tall and 6 to 8 cm (2.3 to 3.0 in) in d.b.h. Mature trees are usually 12 to 15 m (40 to 50 ft) tall and 30 to 61 cm (12 to 24 in) in d.b.h. On good sites, trees may reach 37 m (120 ft) in height and 122 cm (48 in) in d.b.h. (25).

Some of the earliest data on diameter growth in natural eastern redcedar stands is presented in table 2 (3). Site classes mentioned are those described in table 1. Analysis of these data provided equations to compute the height-age relationships in table 3. The relation of height of dominant and codominant trees to d.b.h. and stand density was also determined, after pooling of data for age and site classes (11). Height growth, a reflection of soil depth and fertility, increases with stocking density (fig 1).

Table 2- Average annual diameter growth of dominant eastern redcedar by site
class and stand density¹ Site Class Stand character
I
II
III
IV mm Under-stocked 7.6 8.1 4.6 3.6 Well-stocked - 8.1 4.3 3.0 Over-stocked - 3.8 2.5 1.8 in Under-stocked 0.30 0.32 0.18 0.14 Well-stocked - 0.32 0.17 0.12 Over-stocked - 0.15 0.10 0.07 ¹Based on increment core measurements of 456 trees (3). Table 3- Total height of eastern recedars by age¹ and site class Site Class Growth rings II III m ft m ft 10   4.6 15   3.7 12 15   5.5 18   5.2 17 20   7.6 25   6.1 20 25   8.5 28   7.3 24 30   9.8 32   7.9 26 35 10.7 35   8.8 29 40 11.3 37   9.4 31 45  12.2 40 10.1 33 50 12.8 42 10.7 35 ¹Age was computed using the total number of growth rings; false rings make accurate determinations difficult.
Figure 1- Relation of height to d.b.h. by stocking class.

Other studies in Arkansas have shown that growth and yield are affected by stand density and hardwood competition. In a 45-year-old eastern redcedar stand, highest volume growth was obtained in unthinned stands from which hardwoods had been removed. Volumes averaged 1.96 m³/ha (28 ft³/acre) per year during a 14-year period. This was double the growth of stands where hardwoods were left. A stand containing 432 crop trees per hectare (175/acre), 7.6 cm (3.0 in) d.b.h. and larger grew nearly the same volume after 14 years when 80 percent of the competition was removed as an unreleased stand of 988 trees per hectare (400/acre) (11).

Over a 10-year period in northern Arkansas, completely released stands averaged higher growth in d.b.h., basal area, and volume than stands where only crown competition was removed. The greatest mean d.b.h. growth, 6.4 cm (2.5 in), occurred with the lightest stocking, 124 crop trees per hectare (50/acre). As stocking increased, mean d.b.h. growth decreased. Basal area increase was greatest in stands having 988 crop trees per hectare (400/acre), and as stocking decreased, basal area and volume growth decreased. An initial stocking of 988 eastern redcedar crop trees per hectare (400/acre), averaging about 7.6 cm (3 in) d.b.h., produced over 28 m³/ha (2,000 fbm/acre) in 10 years. A stocking of 432 trees per hectare (175/acre), averaging 10.2 cm (4 in) d.b.h., produced slightly more volume during the same period on similar sites (11).

On most sites eastern redcedar grows slowly, and long rotations are required to produce conventional sawlogs. Because the wood is used for small items, however, and there is wide latitude in acceptable defects, shortening of rotations and intermediate harvesting of merchantable wood are possible. About 20 to 30 years are required for posts and 40 to 60 years for sawtimber (11,25).

Maintaining relatively dense stands can maximize post production. Thinning one or more times before harvest cut hastens sawlog production but may not increase total yield. The ideal density for growing sawlogs is not known, but excessive thinning may promote excessive formation of sapwood and growth of lower branches.

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Reaction to Competition

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Eastern redcedar has been classified as intolerant to very intolerant of shade (11,30), but trees that have lived for decades beneath a full canopy of hardwoods or pines on medium- to low-quality sites have been observed. Apparently, eastern redcedar has an inherent low capacity for water loss and the ability to sustain stomatal opening at low water potentials, which help the species adapt to dry environments (4). Eastern redcedar can also conduct photosynthesis when overstory hardwoods are leafless and perhaps even reduces its light requirements for photosynthesis by adjusting to shaded conditions (17,24). Eastern redcedar is a pioneer species on surface-mined areas, old fields, or pastures that are protected from fire; and it is the primary natural reproduction in many shelterbelts. However, stands formed through invasion of old fields may deteriorate at around 60 years of age as hardwoods or other competing species become established. Eastern redcedar grows well and faster than associated species because it is sun-adapted, drought-resistant, and has a long growing season. On most sites, eastern redcedar is temporary and is eventually replaced by more tolerant hardwoods and pines. However, clusters of eastern redcedar established beneath hardwoods have survived longer than the competing hardwood trees, possibly due to an allelopathic effect, or the species may be a better competitor for water and nutrients (34). The species is more permanent on poor sites having thin, rocky soils, such as the glades of the Ozarks of Missouri and Arkansas and the Nashville Basin in central Tennessee. Eastern redcedar invasion of pastures is a problem on areas converted from poor hardwood sites in the Ozarks and western areas of its range (9,31), and the species is likely to persist for a long time if left to grow (7).

Eastern redcedar should be managed in even-aged stands, judging from studies conducted in northern Arkansas (11). Good growth rates can be maintained by controlling competition and stand densities.

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Rooting Habit

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On shallow and rocky soils, eastern redcedar roots are very fibrous and tend to spread widely. Even first-year seedlings begin developing a long fibrous root system, often at the expense of top growth (15). If soil conditions permit, eastern redcedar trees develop a deep, penetrating taproot.

Root development is greatly influenced by the size of soil-filled fissures. Eastern redcedar roots are known to grow extensively in soils in which limestone rocks make up more than 52 percent of the total soil volume (11).

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Mature eastern redcedar trees produce some seeds nearly every year, but good crops occur only every 2 or 3 years. The cones do not open and will remain on the tree through the winter, although many are eaten and dispersed by animals. Most remaining cones are dispersed in February to March. Mature fruits are usually collected in the fall by hand-stripping or shaking onto canvas. Seeds may be stored as dried fruits or cleaned seeds.

After fanning to remove leaves, twigs, and other debris, the seeds can be extracted by running the fruit through a macerator and floating the pulp and empty seeds away. Dried fruits should be soaked in water several hours before macerating. Since eastern redcedar fruits are resinous, they should be soaked in a weak lye solution for 1 or 2 days. The soaking helps separate the oily, resinous pulp from the seeds and aids further washing, flotation, and stratification. This treatment should be followed by thorough washing (45). The cleaned seeds are ready for use, or they can be dried to 10 to 12 percent moisture content for storage at -7° C (20° F) to 4° C (40° F). The number of cleaned seeds per kilogram ranges from 81,570 (37,000/lb) to 121,250 (55,000/lb) and averages 96,120 (43,600/lb) (23). If seeds are to be sown in the spring, they should be soaked in a citric acid solution (10,000 ppm) for 96-hours, placed in moist-warm stratification at 24° C (75° F) for 6 weeks, and finally placed in moist-cool stratification at 5° C (41° F) for 10 weeks. Germination is best if fresh seeds are used. If desired, dry, stored seeds may be sown in mid-July, which accomplishes moist-warm stratification, and the over-winter period accomplishes moist-cool stratification for early spring germination (46).

In nursery practice, eastern redcedar seeds are broadcast or sown in rows spaced 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) apart in well-prepared seedbeds and covered with about 6 mm (0.25 in) of firmed soil or sand. Stratified seeds should be sown in the spring early enough to allow completion of germination before air temperatures exceed 21° C (70° F). Germination of stratified seed usually begins in 6 to 10 days after sowing and is completed in 4 to 5 weeks. Untreated seeds may be sown in the fall and mulched until germination during the second spring after planting (23); but when fruits are depulped, dried, and stored at -16° C (4° F), seeds germinate the first spring after summer sowing (46). Germination is epigeal.

Fruits are eaten by birds and other animals, which are important vectors for seed dissemination (20). Seeds that pass through animal digestive tracts and those that remain on the ground beneath the trees may germinate the first or second spring. Most of the natural germination of eastern redcedar seed takes place in early spring of the second year after dispersal.

Eastern redcedar may also be established by hand direct-seeding or machine-sowing (29). Both hand and furrow seeding are successful when stratified seeds are used at the rate of 1.35 kg/ha (1.2 lb/acre). Seedling catch is best where the amount of litter has been reduced and hardwood competition has been completely removed. The rate of sowing may be adjusted to allow for variations in germinative capacity of the seeds and degree of competition control.

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Seedling Development

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Eastern redcedar seedlings grown in nurseries may be transplanted from seedling beds after 1 or 2 years. Spacing in transplant beds ranges from about 15 by 3 cm (6 by 1 in) to 20 by 5 cm (8 by 2 in), depending on locality. The age at which trees are outplanted varies from area to area. Generally, eastern redcedar is field planted as 2-0, 3-0, 1-1, 1-2, 2-1, or 2-2 stock (numbers refer respectively to growing seasons in seedling beds and transplant beds).

Survival and growth of planted stock can be improved by grading the seedlings just after lifting from the nursery beds. Seedlings that are relatively small, topheavy, oversized, damaged, diseased, or insect-infested are discarded (37). Culling after lifting from transplant beds is usually 1 to 3 percent, compared to 5 to 20 percent from seedling beds. Eastern redcedar seedlings should have a stem diameter of at least 4.0 mm (0.16 in), but preferably 5.6 mm (0.22 in), at the ground line. It is also desirable for seedlings to have top green weights that are no more than 3 to 4 times heavier than the roots (26,36). Seedlings having higher top-to-root ratios are more likely to die under environmental stress.

Survival of eastern redcedar plantations has been variable, with low survival being attributed to poor seedling quality, low site quality, and competition. If these factors are considered carefully, however, eastern redcedar plantations can be successfully established. One early plantation established from hand-pulled wildlings had 84 percent survival. In a Nebraska plantation, established with 2-0 seedlings from 204 sources of eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, first-year survival averaged 95.1 percent. Four other plantations from these sources averaged more than 85 percent survival, although one in Oklahoma had only 19.7 percent (11,38).

Most natural eastern redcedar regeneration takes place on relatively poor hardwood or pine sites, along fence rows, or in pastures that are not burned or mowed. Seedlings are commonly established in rather open hardwood stands, adjacent to older seed-bearing eastern redcedar trees, as a result of birds eating the fruit and subsequent deposition of seeds (34). On very dry sites, most seedlings are found in crevices, between layers of limestone, and in other protected places where the microclimate is most favorable. Seedling development is relatively slow on these adverse sites, although eastern redcedar seedlings withstand drought rather well (4,22). First-year seedlings do not produce much height growth but develop a long fibrous root system (15). Plantings from 2-0 stock showed good growth in some areas, however, exceeding 45 cm (17.8 in) in height after one growing season (38). If competition from an overstory is rather severe, eastern redcedar seedlings may not survive. Once established, however, eastern redcedar survives for extended periods under severe competition (15,28). Eastern redcedar also competes very well in shelterbelts, where it is the most common natural reproduction (43).

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Soils and Topography

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Eastern redcedar grows on a wide variety of soils, ranging from dry rock outcrops to wet swampy land (15). The most common soils fall within the soil orders Mollisols and Ultisols. No attempt will be made here to describe all of them. Like most species, eastern redcedar grows best on deep, moist, well-drained alluvial sites, where its height may reach 17 to 18 m (55 to 60 ft) in 50 years. On the better sites, however, hardwood competition is so severe that the species rarely becomes dominant. Eastern redcedar also grows well on deep, upland soils, particularly abandoned farmland. A 0.4-hectare (1-acre) plantation established in Arkansas from wildlings, with spacing of 1.8 by 1.8 m (6 by 6 ft), yielded a basal area of 37.4 m²/ha (163 ft²/acre) and an estimated 196 m³/ha (2,800 ft³/acre) of merchantable volume in 44 years (11).

The species is frequently associated with areas commonly called glades, characterized by thin rocky soils and intermittent rock outcrops; soil depth is difficult to determine because soil rock content and depth of rock fissures vary (11,16). Soils on the poorest glade sites are less than 30 cm (12 in) deep, medium sites are usually less than 61 cm (24 in) deep and have large crevices, and good sites have deeper soil. Arend and Collins (3) developed the site classification system shown in table 1.

Table 1- Site classes for natural stands of eastern redcedar in northern Arkansas Site Class Item I II III IV Soil character alluvial upland upland upland Soil depth, cm 61+ 61+ 30 to 58 less than 30 Soil depth, in 24+ 24+ 12 to 23 less than 12 Site index¹ Open stand, m 16.8 13.7 10.7   7.6 Open stand, ft 55    45    35    25    Closed stand, m 18.3 15.2 12.2   9.1 Closed stand, ft 60    50    40    30    ¹Adjusted to base age 50 years. Eastern redcedar grows on soils that vary widely in acidity. Soils found in natural stands range in pH value from 4.7 to 7.8. Although the species will grow on sites that are slightly alkaline, it is not particularly tolerant to higher pH levels. Eastern redcedar is, in fact, among the least alkali-tolerant of drought-hardy trees and shrubs. Soils in eastern redcedar stands tend to become neutral or slightly alkaline because the high calcium content of the tree's foliage can change the pH of the surface soil in a relatively short time. This condition also increases earthworm activity, with an increase in incorporation of organic matter, a lower volume weight, and an increase in pore volume and infiltration rate (11,15).

Eastern redcedar grows on ridgetops, varying slopes, and flat land and is frequently found on dry, exposed sites and abandoned fields. This aspect also influences eastern redcedar development. In the western part of its range, the species may be found on north-facing slopes and along streambanks where there is some protection from high temperatures and drought. Although the most desirable elevation is not clearly delineated, eastern redcedar is found most often growing between 30 m (100 ft) and 1070 m (3,500 ft). It is notably absent below the 30 m (100 ft) elevation zone in the southern and eastern parts of the species range (15,27).

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Special Uses

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Eastern redcedar is important to wildlife. As an evergreen, it provides good nesting and roosting cover for many birds (18,39). Dense thickets provide good escape cover for deer, and the abundant foliage, although low in quality, provides emergency food for them during times of stress. Fruits are high in crude fat and crude fiber, moderate in calcium, and very high in total carbohydrates. Eastern redcedar fruits are eaten by many wildlife species, including waxwings, bobwhite, quail, ruffed grouse, pheasant, wild turkeys, rabbits, foxes, raccoons, skunks, opossums, and coyotes (20).

Eastern redcedar is among the best trees for protecting soils from wind erosion and reducing the desiccating effects of wind. It ranks high in the Great Plains shelterbelt plantings because of its ability to withstand extremes of drought, heat, and cold (15). In Nebraska, eastern redcedar was the most suitable species among five combinations tested for single-row field windbreaks (42). The fibrous root system also helps to hold soil in place, especially on shallow soils. Many varieties of eastern redcedar are used as ornamental plantings (19,35). The species is also ranked among the top five for Christmas trees (25). Eastern redcedar is also important as a source of cedarwood oil, which is a natural product for direct use in fragrance compounding or as a source of raw material producing additional fragrance compounds (1).

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Vegetative Reproduction

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Eastern redcedar does not reproduce naturally by sprouting or suckering, but the species may be propagated by grafting, by air-layering, or from cuttings (6,15,33,44).

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Distribution

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Eastern redcedar is the most widely distributed conifer of tree size in the Eastern United States and is found in every State east of the 100th meridian. The species extends northward into southern Ontario and the southern tip of Quebec (27). The range of eastern redcedar has been considerably extended, especially in the Great Plains, by natural regeneration from planted trees (47).


- The native range of eastern redcedar.

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Brief Summary

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Cupressaceae -- Cypress family

Edwin R. Lawson

Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), also called red juniper or savin, is a common coniferous species growing on a variety of sites throughout the eastern half of the United States. Although eastern redcedar is generally not considered to be an important commercial species, its wood is highly valued because of its beauty, durability, and workability. The number of trees and volume of eastern redcedar are increasing throughout most of its range. It provides cedarwood oil for fragrance compounds, food and shelter for wildlife, and protective vegetation for fragile soils.

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Comprehensive Description

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Juniperus virginiana L

Juniperus virginiana L,, Sp. Pl. 1039, 1753.

Small tree, branch tips tending to be recurved; juvenile leaves subulate or acicular, pungently pointed, leaves of mature growth scale-like, acutely pointed. Plant seen sterile, so identification uncertain.

Native to eastern North America; planted in Guam as an ornamental, introduced after World War II.

MARIANAS ISLANDS.—Guam: Agaña, Stone s. n. in 1964, sterile (UG). Tamuning, 30 m, Evans 1636 (US, BISH, Fo).

Thuja L.

Thuja L., Gen. Pl. ed. 5, 435, 1754 [1753] [as Thuya].—Stone, Micronesica 6:67–68, 1971.

Biota D. Don in Lambert, Pinet. ed. 2, 2:129, 1828.

Shrubs or usually trees, evergreen, branchlet systems in one plane, branchlets flattened in same plane; leaves scale-like, opposite, in four ranks, dimorphic; strobiles monoecious, staminate with 6–12 decussate scales, ovulate with 6–12 thick peltate scales; seeds 2–3 to a scale, winged or not.

A few species in eastern Asia and North America, one in cultivation in Micronesia.
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bibliographic citation
Fosberg, F. Raymond and Sachet, Marie-Hélène. 1975. "Flora of Micronesia, 1: Gymnospermae." Smithsonian Contributions to Botany. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.5479/si.0081024X.20

Physical Description

provided by USDA PLANTS text
Tree, Evergreen, Dioecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark shaggy or peeling, Young shoots in flat sprays, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds not resinous, Leaves scale-like, Whip leaves present, Leaves of two kinds, Leaves opposite, Leaves whorled, Non-needle-like leaf margins entire, Leaf apex acute, Leaf apex obtuse, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves not blue-green, Scale leaves without raised glands, Scale leaf glands not ruptured, Scale leaves overlapping, Whip leaf margins entire under magnification, Twigs glabrous, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones brown, Berry-like cones brown-purple, Berry-like cones pink, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds tan, Seeds brown, Seeds wingless.
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Juniperus virginiana

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Juniperus virginiana, also known as eastern redcedar,[2][3] red cedar, Virginian juniper,[4] eastern juniper, red juniper, and other local names, is a species of juniper native to eastern North America from southeastern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and east of the Great Plains.[3] Further west it is replaced by the related Juniperus scopulorum (Rocky Mountain juniper) and to the southwest by Juniperus ashei (Ashe juniper).[5][6][7] It is not to be confused with Thuja occidentalis (eastern white cedar).

Description

Juniperus virginiana foliage and mature cones

Juniperus virginiana is a dense slow-growing coniferous evergreen tree that may never become more than a bush on poor soil, but is ordinarily from 5–20 metres (16–66 feet) tall, with a short trunk 30–100 centimetres (12–39 inches) in diameter, rarely to 27 m (89 ft) in height and 170 cm (67 in) in diameter. The oldest tree reported, from West Virginia, was 940 years old.[8] The bark is reddish-brown, fibrous, and peels off in narrow strips. The leaves are of two types; sharp, spreading needle-like juvenile leaves 5–10 millimetres (31638 in) long, and tightly adpressed scale-like adult leaves 2–4 mm (116316 in) long; they are arranged in opposite decussate pairs or occasionally whorls of three. The juvenile leaves are found on young plants up to 3 years old, and as scattered shoots on adult trees, usually in shade. The seed cones are 3–7 mm (1814 in) long, berry-like, dark purple-blue with a white wax cover giving an overall sky-blue color (though the wax often rubs off); they contain one to three (rarely up to four) seeds, and are mature in 6–8 months from pollination. The juniper berry is an important winter food for many birds, which disperse the wingless seeds. The pollen cones are 2–3 mm (11618 in) long and 1.5 mm (116 in) broad, shedding pollen in late winter or early spring. The trees are usually dioecious, with pollen and seed cones on separate trees,[5][6][7] yet some are monoecious.

There are two varieties,[2] which intergrade where they meet:[5][6][7]

  • Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana is called eastern juniper / redcedar. It is found in eastern North America, from Maine, west to southern Ontario and South Dakota, south to northernmost Florida and southwest into the post oak savannah of east-central Texas. Cones are larger, 4–7 mm (31614 in); scale leaves are acute at apex and bark is red-brown.
  • Juniperus virginiana var. silicicola (Small) E.Murray (syn. Sabina silicicola Small, Juniperus silicicola (Small) L.H.Bailey) is known as southern or sand juniper / redcedar. Its variety name means "flint-dweller", from Latin silex and -cola. Habitat is along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from the extreme southeastern corner of Virginia,[9] south to central Florida and west to southeast Texas. Cones are smaller, 3–4 mm (18316 in); scale leaves are blunt at apex and the bark is orange-brown. It is treated by some authors at the lower rank of variety, while others treat it as a distinct species.

Ecology

Characteristic shape in old field succession

Eastern juniper is a pioneer species, which means that it is one of the first trees to repopulate cleared, eroded, or otherwise damaged land. It is unusually long lived among pioneer species, with the potential to live over 900 years. It is commonly found in prairies or oak barrens, old pastures, or limestone hills, often along highways and near recent construction sites.[5][6][10] It is an alternate host for cedar–apple rust, an economically significant fungal disease of apples, and some management strategies recommend the removal of J. virginiana near apple orchards[11]

In many areas it is considered an invasive species, even if native. It is fire-intolerant, and was previously controlled by periodic wildfires. Low branches near the ground burn and provide a ladder that allows fire to engulf the whole tree. Grasses recover quickly from low severity fires that are characteristic of prairies that kept the trees at bay. With the urbanization of prairies, the fires have been stopped with roads, plowed fields, and other fire breaks, allowing J. virginiana and other trees to invade.[12] Trees are destructive to grasslands if left unchecked, and are actively being eliminated by cutting and prescribed burning.[13] The trees also burn very readily, and dense populations were blamed for the rapid spread of wildfires in drought stricken Oklahoma and Texas in 2005 and 2006.[14]

Eastern juniper benefits from increased CO2 levels, unlike the grasses with which it competes. Many grasses are C4 plants that concentrate CO2 levels in their bundle sheaths to increase the efficiency of RuBisCO, the enzyme responsible for photosynthesis, while junipers are C3 plants that rely on (and may benefit from) the natural CO2 concentrations of the environment, although they are less efficient at fixing CO2 in general.[15]

Damage done by J. virginiana includes outcompeting forage species in pastureland. The low branches and wide base occupy a significant portion of land area. The thick foliage blocks out most light, so few plants can live under the canopy. The needles that fall raise the pH of the soil, making it alkaline, which holds nutrients such as phosphorus, making it harder for plants to absorb them.[16] However, studies have found that Juniperus virginiana forests that replace grasslands have a statistically insignificant decrease[17] to a significant increase[15] in levels of soil nitrogen. J. virginiana forests have higher overall nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), despite the common grassland species Andropogon gerardi having a far higher NUE during photosynthesis (PNUE).[15] The forests store much greater amounts of carbon in both biomass and soil, with most of the additional carbon stored aboveground. There is no significant difference in soil microbial activity.[15]

Cedar waxwings are fond of the "berries" of these junipers. It takes about 12 minutes for their seeds to pass through the birds' guts, and seeds that have been consumed by this bird have levels of germination roughly three times higher than those of seeds the birds did not eat. Many other birds (from bluebirds to turkeys) and many mammals also consume them.[10]

Pollen

The pollen of Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana is a known allergen. The nominate variety is native to Eastern North America, north of Mexico, with the pollen releasing at various points in the spring, variable by latitude and elevation.[18]

Uses

"Berries" of the 'Corcorcor' cultivar

The fragrant, finely grained, soft, brittle, very light, pinkish to brownish red heartwood is very durable, even in contact with soil. Because of its resistance to decay, fence posts are fashioned from the wood. Moths avoid the aromatic wood, and therefore it is in demand as lining for clothes chests and closets, which are often denominated "cedar closets" and "cedar chests". If correctly prepared, excellent English longbows, flatbows, and Native American sinew-backed bows can be made from it. It is marketed as "eastern redcedar" and "aromatic cedar". The best portions of the heartwood are one of the few woods that are suitable for making pencils, however the supply had so diminished by the 1940s that the wood of the incense-cedar largely replaced it.[10]

A log sawn in two and turned on a lathe, exposing the pale sapwood and the reddish heartwood

Part of the commercially available cedar oil is produced by steam distillation from wood shavings. It contains a wide variety of terpenes. The three major components, alpha-cedrene, thujopsene and cedrol, constitute more than 60% of the essential oil.[19][20][21] The fruits also yield an essential oil which contains mostly D-Limonene.[22]

The oil derived from foliage and twigs has two main constituents: safrole and limonene.[23] One minor compound is the podophyllotoxin, a non-alkaloid toxin lignan.[24]

Native American tribes have historically used poles of juniper wood to demarcate agreed tribal hunting territories. French traders named Baton Rouge, Louisiana, which denotes "red stick", from the reddish color of these poles. Some nations continue to use it ceremonially.

The Cahokia Woodhenge series of timber circles that the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture in western Illinois erected were constructed of massive logs of eastern juniper. One iteration of such a circle, Woodhenge III, which is thought to have been constructed circa 1000 AD, had 48 posts in the circle of 410 feet (120 m) in diameter and a 49th pole in the center.[25]

Among many Native American cultures, the smoke of burning eastern juniper is believed to expel evil spirits prior to conducting a ceremony, such as a healing ceremony.[26]

During the Dust Bowl drought of the 1930s, the Prairie States Forest Project encouraged farmers to plant shelterbelts, i. e. wind breaks, of eastern juniper throughout the Great Plains of the USA. The trees thrive in adverse conditions. Tolerant of both drought and cold, they grow well in rocky, sandy, and clayey soils. Competition between individual trees is minimal, and therefore they can be closely planted in rows, in which situation they still grow to full height, creating a solid windbreak in a short time.[27]

A number of cultivars have been selected for horticulture, including 'Canaertii' (narrow conical; female) 'Corcorcor' (with a dense, erect crown; female), 'Goldspire' (narrow conical with yellow foliage), and 'Kobold' (dwarf). Some cultivars previously listed under this species, notably 'Skyrocket', are actually cultivars of J. scopulorum.[28]

In the Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma Ozarks, eastern juniper is commonly used as a Christmas tree.

This is the most widely used wood for making blocks for recorders. There are numerous properties that it possesses that make it uniquely suitable for this, such as good moisture absorption, low expansion when wet (so it does not crack the recorder head), and mild antiseptic properties.

See also

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Juniperus virginiana". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42257A2967510. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42257A2967510.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b Adams, Robert P. (1993). "Juniperus virginiana". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  3. ^ a b USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Juniperus virginiana". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
  4. ^ BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
  5. ^ a b c d Farjon, A. (2005). Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 1-84246-068-4
  6. ^ a b c d Earle, Christopher J., ed. (2018). "Juniperus virginiana". The Gymnosperm Database.
  7. ^ a b c Adams, R. P. (2004). Junipers of the World. Trafford. ISBN 1-4120-4250-X
  8. ^ "Juniperus virginiana". Eastern OLDLIST. Retrieved 13 December 2015.
  9. ^ Cooper, Jason A.; Becker, Charles W. (July 2009). Virginia's Timber Industry — An Assessment of Timber Product Output and Use, 2007 (PDF). Virginia Department of Forestry (Report). Southern Research Station, United States Forest Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-02-02. Retrieved 4 August 2018.
  10. ^ a b c Barlow, Virginia (Winter 2004). "Species in the Spotlight: Eastern Redcedar, Juniperus virginiana". Northern Woodlands. Center for Northern Woodlands Education. 11 (43): 37. Retrieved July 29, 2009.
  11. ^ Yoder, K.S.; Biggs, A.R. "Cedar-Apple Rust, Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae". West Virginia University. Archived from the original on 2007-11-12.
  12. ^ "Forest Plan" (PDF). fs.fed.us.
  13. ^ "Oklahoma Must Address Cedar Encroachment". Noble Research Institute. Ardmore, OK.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ^ "Wildfires Rip Through Oklahoma". CNN. January 1, 2006. Retrieved April 11, 2007.
  15. ^ a b c d McKinley, Duncan C.; Blair, John M. (1 April 2008). "Woody Plant Encroachment by Juniperus virginiana in a Mesic Native Grassland Promotes Rapid Carbon and Nitrogen Accrual". Ecosystems. 11 (3): 454–468. doi:10.1007/s10021-008-9133-4. S2CID 23911766.
  16. ^ Bekele, Asfaw; Hudnall, Wayne. H. (1 April 2005). "Response of soil δ15N and nutrients to eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) encroachment into a relict calcareous prairie". Plant and Soil. 271 (1): 143–155. doi:10.1007/s11104-004-2297-6. S2CID 37204504.
  17. ^ Norris, Mark D.; Blair, John M.; Johnson, Loretta C. (October 2007). "Altered Ecosystem Nitrogen Dynamics as a Consequence of Land Cover Change in Tallgrass Prairie". The American Midland Naturalist. 158 (2): 432–445. doi:10.1674/0003-0031(2007)158[432:AENDAA]2.0.CO;2. hdl:20.500.12648/2288. S2CID 55258892.
  18. ^ "Eastern Red-Cedar Species Description". Pollen Library. Archived from the original on 1 Nov 2019. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
  19. ^ Adams, R. P. (1991). "Cedar Wood Oil — Analyses and Properties". Essential Oils and Waxes. Modern Methods of Plant Analysis. Vol. 12. pp. 159–173. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-84023-4_8. ISBN 978-3-642-84025-8.
  20. ^ Adams, Robert P. (January 1987). "Investigation of Juniperus species of the United States for new Sources of Cedarwood Oil". Economic Botany. 41 (1): 48–54. doi:10.1007/BF02859346. S2CID 39335597.
  21. ^ Zhang, Kai; Yao, Lei (May 2018). "The anxiolytic effect of Juniperus virginiana L. essential oil and determination of its active constituents". Physiology & Behavior. 189: 50–58. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.01.004. PMID 29326032. S2CID 4620958.
  22. ^ Samoylenko, Volodymyr; Dunbar, D. Chuck; Gafur, Md. Abdul; Khan, Shabana I.; Ross, Samir A.; Mossa, Jaber S.; El-Feraly, Farouk S.; Tekwani, Babu L.; Bosselaers, Jan; Muhammad, Ilias (December 2008). "Antiparasitic, nematicidal and antifouling constituents from Juniperus berries". Phytotherapy Research. 22 (12): 1570–1576. doi:10.1002/ptr.2460. PMID 19067375. S2CID 10379153.
  23. ^ Gawde, Archana J.; Cantrell, Charles L.; Zheljazkov, Valtcho D. (September 2009). "Dual extraction of essential oil and podophyllotoxin from Juniperus virginiana". Industrial Crops and Products. 30 (2): 276–280. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2009.05.005.
  24. ^ Cushman, Kent E.; Maqbool, Muhammad; Gerard, Patrick D.; Bedir, Ebru; Lata, Hemant; Moraes, Rita M. (May 2003). "Variation of Podophyllotoxin in Leaves of Eastern Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana)". Planta Medica. 69 (5): 477–478. doi:10.1055/s-2003-39707. PMID 12802737.
  25. ^ Iseminger, William R. "The Skywatchers of Cahokia". Mexicolore. Retrieved 2017-12-19.
  26. ^ Lyon, William S. (1998). Encyclopedia of Native American Healing. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 173. ISBN 0-393-31735-8.
  27. ^ "USDA Fact Sheet" (PDF). ufl.edu.
  28. ^ Welch, H., & Haddow, G. (1993). The World Checklist of Conifers. Landsman's. ISBN 0-900513-09-8.

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Juniperus virginiana: Brief Summary

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Juniperus virginiana, also known as eastern redcedar, red cedar, Virginian juniper, eastern juniper, red juniper, and other local names, is a species of juniper native to eastern North America from southeastern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and east of the Great Plains. Further west it is replaced by the related Juniperus scopulorum (Rocky Mountain juniper) and to the southwest by Juniperus ashei (Ashe juniper). It is not to be confused with Thuja occidentalis (eastern white cedar).

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