At different times of the year, the Lark Sparrow Chondestes grammacus is found in a large portion of the contiguous United States, with the exception of the east coast and a relatively small area in the northwest. The Lark Sparrow is also found in the central-southern region of Canada, and in a large portion of Mexico. During their breeding season, they shift farther to the north, and during the winter they migrate to milder climates farther to the south. (Byers et. al. 1995; Rising 1996)

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Breeding range extends from extreme southern British Columbia and eastern Washington, southeastern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, northern Minnesota, western Wisconsin, southern Michigan, Ohio (local remnant population), and central Pennsylvania south to southern California, northern Baja California, central Nevada, southern Arizona, northeastern Sonora, southern Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Nuevo Leon, northern Tamaulipas, southern and eastern Texas, Louisiana, central Alabama, central North Carolina, and western Virginia; local and irregular east of the Mississippi Valley (AOU 1998, Martin and Parrish 2000). Accidental breeder in Ontario (Martin and Parrish 2000). Nonbreeding range extends from western Oregon, California, southern Idaho, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and Texas south through Mexico to southern Baja California, Oaxaca, and Chiapas; casual on U.S. Gulf Coast, Belize, Bahamas, Jamaica, and Cuba (AOU 1998, Martin and Parrish 2000).

An adult Lark Sparrow can measure 14 to 16 cm (5.5 to 6.3 in.) in length. Its tail is long, rounded and edged with white. The adult has a distinctive light and dark pattern on its head which typically consists of a white or beige stripe on its crown, along with chestnut coloration that starts near the top of its bill. It also has chestnut coloration on its back. There is no significant difference in coloration between the male and female Lark Sparrow. The juvenile Lark Sparrow has duller coloration than the adult Lark Sparrow and has a streaked breast. The adult bird may have a tail that appears to be more brown during the spring season, due to wear and fading. Lark Sparrows which breed in the western part of its geographic range tend to have lighter coloration than those found in other parts of the geographic range. (Gough et. al. 1998; Rising 1996)

Range mass: 25.5 to 33.3 g.

Average mass: 29 g.

Length: 17 cm

Weight: 29 grams

• Terrestrial

Lark Sparrows commonly breed in prairies, savannah, mesas, farmlands, open woodland, and other open areas with scattered trees and patches of bare ground. In winter and during migration they are found in similar areas, but can also be found in brushy fields and semi-arid areas. (Byers et. al. 1995; Rising 1996)

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; chaparral

Comments: Breeding habitat includes various open situations with scattered bushes and trees: shortgrass, mixed-grass, and tallgrass prairie with a shrub component and sparse litter; parkland; sandhills; barrens; oldfields; cultivated fields; shrub thickets; shrubsteppe (native and altered); woodland edges; shelterbelts; orchards, parks; riparian areas; brushy pastures; overgrazed pastures; and savanna, (Rand 1948, Baepler 1968, Newman 1970, Rising 1974, Stewart 1975, Salt and Salt 1976, Wiens and Rotenberry 1981, Faanes 1983, Dinsmore et al. 1984, Kahl et al. 1985, Walley 1985, Sample 1989, Wershler et al. 1991, Bock and Bock 1992, Cable et al. 1992, Kaspari and Joern 1993, Zimmerman 1993, Bock et al. 1995, Faanes and Lingle 1995, Best et al. 1997, Prescott 1997, AOU 1998, Martin and Parrish 2000).

In Nevada, this species preferred areas of crested wheatgrass that were invaded by sagebrush over areas dominated solely by either sagebrush or wheatgrass; abundance was negatively correlated with sagebrush density (McAdoo et al. 1989). In Arizona, inhabited areas characterized by mean habitat values of 38 percent bare ground, 54 percent grass cover, 7 percent forb cover, less than 2 percent canopy cover, 13 centimeter grass height, and 0.068 shrubs per square meter; individuals usually were flushed near mesquite (Bock and Webb 1984).

Nests are either on the ground or close to the ground (most often within 4 meters) in woody vegetation (Ely 1957, Baepler 1968, McNair 1985). Ground nests may be located in areas of sparse ground cover such as those areas associated with burning, moderate to heavy grazing, or poor or eroded soils (Fitch 1958, Graber and Graber 1963, Baepler 1968, Kahl et al. 1985, Walley 1985, Zimmerman 1993, Prescott 1997), or in idle fields, lawns, and cemeteries (Baepler 1968, Salt and Salt 1976, Walley 1985). Ground nests often are placed at the base of a plant (Ely 1957, Baepler 1968, Rising 1974). In Montana, nests always were located under sagebrush (Cameron 1908). Above-ground nests may be located in various species of shrubs, saplings, and small trees (Baepler 1968, Newman 1970, McNair 1985). This species sometimes uses old nests of other birds (e.g., northern mockingbird, thrasher).

Nonbreeding habitats include agricultural areas, suburban gardens, oak woodlands, chaparral, and mesquite/acacia grassland (Rising 1996).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Breeding populations throughout Canadian and most of U.S. range are long-distance migrants, wintering largely in Mexico and the American southwest. Spring migrants pass through Sonora in mid-March and April (Russell and Monson 1998), peak in Oregon in late April through mid-May (Gilligan et al. 1994), and arrive in southern Alberta in mid- to late May (Semenchuk 1992). Resident populations occur in southwestern Oregon, California, southern Idaho, southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, Texas, northern Baja California, and northcentral Mexico (Martin and Parrish 2000).

The Lark Sparrow feeds mostly on seeds and insects. Grasshoppers are a major part of its insect diet. It forages for food in open areas on the ground. (Byers et. al. 1995; Rising 1996)

Comments: This sparrow is an on omnivore during the breeding season, a granivore in the nonbreeding season (DeGraaf et al. 1985). It feeds on seeds and insects; during the breeding season in Nebraska the diet was 61% seeds and 39% insects (especially grasshoppers, but also beetles, larval Lepidoptera, and spittlebugs) (Kaspari and Joern 1993). Feeding occurs on the ground, often in small flocks.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: This species is represented by a large number of occurrences.

>1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 1,000,000. Rich et al. (2004) estimated global population size at 9,900,000.

Lark sprrows defend small territories around the immediate nest site (Martin and Parrish 2000), 66-248 square meters in extent (n=3, Fitch 1958).

This species may be seen in flocks, especially during the winter.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 94 months.

The nesting season for the Lark Sparrow goes from mid-April through the month of July. The incubation period for the egg of a Lark Sparrow is 11-12 days. The eggs are usually white, bluish white or brownish white with dark, brownish, black or purplish speckles. The female can lay between 3-6 eggs at a time, but typically yields 4 or 5 eggs. The male does not participate in building the nest or incubating the eggs. The nest is typically built on the ground in a hollow cup-shaped depression lined with grass and stems. Both male and female typically feed their young, which normally leave the nest after 6-10 days. (Byers et. al. 1995; Ehrlich et. al. 1988; Rising 1996)

Average time to hatching: 12 days.

Average eggs per season: 4.

Clutch initiation peaks in early May in the south, early June in the north (McNair 1985). Clutch size is three to six, usually four or five; mean around 4 (McNair 1985). Female incubates 11-12 days (Baepler 1968). Young leave nest typically at 11-12 days, can fly short distances (Baepler 1968, Johnsgard 1979). Individual females often produce two clutches during a single nesting season (Kaspari and Joern 1993). Males may be polygynous (Terres 1980).

Lark sparrows are not endangered or threatened, although they are vulnerable to forested areas being cleared to make room for farmland. They have been extirpated from the state of Michigan. (Byers et. al. 1995; Rising 1996)

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: probably extirpated

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Widespread and abundant throughout much of western North America, but has withdrawn to a great extent from former breeding range east of the Mississippi River; significant survey-wide declines indicated by BBS data for 1966-2007, but relatively stable since mid-1990s.

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data indicate a nonsignificant decline of 0.7 percent per year in North America from 1980 to 2007 (this translates to a decline of 7 percent over 10 years). BBS abundance (average number of birds per route) has been relatively stable since the mid-1990s.

Global Long Term Trend: Increase of 10-25% to decline of 50%

Comments: Long term abundance trend over the past 200 years is unknown, but the species evidently expanded its breeding range eastward with historical deforestation and subsequently has withdrawn from some areas with reforestation or intensive uses of land by humans. Various other anthropogenic habitat changes have resulted in increases in the breeding range in some areas (see Martin and Parrish 2000).

Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data indicate a significant decline of 1.6 percent per year in North America from 1966 to 2007 (a decline of 48 percent over that time period). BBS abundance in 1966-2007 declined from an average of around 5-6 birds per route in the 1960s and early 1970s to an average of 3.1-3.4 birds per route in the 2000s.

Geographic pattern of BBS trend for 1966-2003 is a mosaic of declines in many regions interspersed with several areas with increasing abundance.

Comments: This species often thrives in grazed habitats, disturbed areas, and ecotones. Various types of land uses (e.g., agricultural) may increase lark sparrow habitat to the extent that they generate or increase the amount of edge habitat. Lark sparrow habitat is negatively affected by fire regimes and rangeland management practices that eliminate scattered woody vegetation or that result in encroachment of thick vegetation and ground cover (see Martin and Parrish 2000).

Lark sparrows are highly susceptible to brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds (Wiens 1963, Newman 1970, Hill 1976, Friedmann et al. 1977). Abandonment of parasitized nests has been reported in two cases (Baepler 1968, Walley 1985).

Local declines have been potentially linked to grasshopper control measures (pesticides) (Paige and Ritter 1999).

Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Little is known concerning area requirements. In a Kansas oldfield, one pair used 6 hectares for foraging and nesting activities (Fitch 1958). No studies have investigated a relationship between patch size and nest success or patch size and rates of brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds (Molothrus ater).

Management Requirements: BURNING: Usually is beneficial, except perhaps in northwestern shrub-steppe ecosystems (see below). Within Arizona desert grasslands, abundance increased in native vegetation 2 years postburn; abundance was positively correlated with percent herbaceous cover (Bock and Bock 1992). A nonsignificant increase in abundance occurred 2 year postburn in fields composed of African lovegrass (Eragrostis lehmanniana) and weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula) (Bock and Bock 1992). Prior to the burn, did not inhabit those fields and were absent 3 and 4 years postburn (Bock and Bock 1988, 1992). In Arizona floodplains dominated by sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii), there was no difference in abundance between burned and unburned stands (Bock and Bock 1988). Within a honey mesquite (Prosopis GLANDULOSA)/tobosagrass (Hilaria mutica) grassland in central Texas, abundance was highest in most recent burns and decreased as litter and grass cover increased (Renwald 1977). A negative correlation was found between number of nests and percent cover of tobosagrass; nested in tobosagrass ranging from 32 to 55 percent cover (Renwald 1977). In a Missouri study examining avian composition within 53 sites ranging from hardwood forest to oldfields to grasslands, were found on only one site (Kahl et al.1985). This site was a recently burned grassland characterized by sparse litter cover and few (24-50 stems per hectare) woody stems more than 2.5 centimeters diameter at breast height (Kahl et al. 1985). In contrast to the aforementioned studies, Lark Sparrows avoided an area devoid of woody vegetation burned 2 year previously within Montana shrubsteppe, preferring instead areas dominated by big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) within unburned sites (Bock and Bock 1987). The same was true in southern British Columbia, where Lark Sparrows preferred shrub-steppe dominated by antelope-brush (Purshia tridentata) or big sagebrush, and avoided areas where shrubs had been removed by fire (S. Cannings, pers. comm.).

GRAZING: Little information is available concerning response to mowing or grazing. In Colorado, birds preferred shortgrass and mixed-grass uplands over tallgrass remnants or hayfields (Bock et al. 1995). In Nebraska, abundance was higher on an area both burned and grazed by American bison (Bison bison) than on an area grazed by cattle (Griebel et al. 1998). Abundance was not different between burned and unburned areas within the pasture grazed by American bison. In Oklahoma and Manitoba, nested in moderately to heavily grazed pastures, but also nested in idle fields (Baepler 1968, Newman 1970, Walley 1985). Abundance was significantly higher on grazed than on ungrazed desert grasslands in Arizona (Bock et al. 1984, 1993; Bock and Webb 1984; Bock and Bock 1988).

CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM (CRP): Not common in fields enrolled in the CRP, Permanent Cover Program, or in fields of dense nesting cover (Johnson and Schwartz 1993, Hull et al. 1996, Best et al. 1997, Klute et al. 1997, McMaster and Davis 1998).

PESTICIDES: In a study examining the effects on avian density of discing, spraying of the herbicide 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4,5-T) about 14 years earlier, and construction of brush shelters, there were no effects on brushland sparrows as a group (Gruver and Guthery 1986). In a study examining the effects of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) dust for tick control in Texas, nesting numbers decreased in both the treated and untreated area (George and Stickel 1949).

Global Protection: Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Many occurrences are in protected areas, but management of some of these areas is not necessarily beneficial to lark sparrows.

Unknown.

The Lark Sparrow feeds on grasshoppers, species of which have been known to cause significant damage to crops; therefore, the Lark Sparrow may provide some degree of pest control.

Stewardship Overview: Keys to management include providing suitable habitat (open grasslands with sparse to moderate herbaceous and litter cover, and a shrub component) and allowing moderate grazing or occasional burning. Cooperate with ranching and farming advocates to preserve native pasture and rangeland (Martin and Parrish 2000). Avoid disturbances (e.g., haying, burning, grazing) during nesting (Martin and Parrish 2000). Conduct burns before (early March) arrival on the breeding grounds (Renwald 1977). During brush removal, leave about 10% brush cover (McAdoo et al. 1989); removal of all woody vegetation would make an area unsuitable (Renwald 1977). Conduct burns at 5- to 8- year intervals to increase amount of open foraging area; burns should be conducted at moderate temperatures so as to provide patches of unburned habitat for nesting and perching, while still providing open areas for foraging (Renwald 1977).