When the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote of the skylark 'Hail to thee, blithe spirit, bird thou never were't', he may well have had the exalted song of this species in mind. On a warm summer day, the sky can seem full of birdsong as the skylark seems to hang suspended somewhere overhead. This territorial display can last for as long as five minutes as the bird reaches the zenith of its flight and then slowly descends. The sexes are alike and the birds are streaky brown on the back and buff-white below with dark-brown streaking on the upper breast. The tail is brown with outer-tail feathers of white. There is a small up-turned crest on the back of the head, visible only when raised

There is no bird that sings for such a long time and from such a great height as the sky lark. Sky larks breed in open areas with low growth. In the Netherlands, this means grasslands, heath fields, salt marshes and dunes. The breeding season begins in April and ends in July. In this period, they can raise as many as four nests. In the autumn, a percentage of the Dutch breeding birds migrate to southern Europe, while sky larks breeding in more northerly regions spend the winter in the Netherlands. However if it freezes, they too will depart for the south.

The skylark nests between April and August, and successful pairs may raise up to four broods in one breeding season. Three to five eggs are laid, incubated by the female for 11 days. The nest is always on the ground, and is usually very well concealed within vegetation. The young birds leave the nest when 8 - 10 days old, but remain dependant on their parents for a further 1 - 2 weeks. The male performs his song flights throughout the breeding season. In winter, skylarks move away from upland areas, but large flocks occur on lowland farmland, often in conjunction with other species such as meadow pipits. Stubble fields provide the most important winter food source but set-aside can be useful, particularly if cereal stubbles are in short supply.

Skylarks are native to North Africa, Asia, and Europe. British populations do not migrate, but populations from eastern Asia migrate to southeastern China and populations in the eastern Palearctic migrate to the northern Mediterranean. Skylarks have been introduced to Australia, Canada, Hawaii, and New Zealand.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced ); palearctic (Native ); australian (Introduced ); oceanic islands (Introduced ); pacific ocean (Introduced )

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) BREEDING: British Isles, Scandinavia, northern Russia, and northern Siberia south to northwestern Africa, northern Mediterranean, Asia Minor, northern China, Korea, and Japan. NON-BREEDING: from breeding range south to northern Africa, Persian Gulf, and eastern China. INTRODUCED: established in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii (all main islands; most abundant on Hawaii, Maui, and Lanai), and British Columbia (Vancouver Island). Recently spread to mainland of British Columbia and to San Juan Islands, Washington (AOU 1983)

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

The skylark's breeding range covers all of Europe and the temperate zone of Asia as far east as Japan and the Kamchatka peninsular. Breeding birds are mainly resident in the UK, although numbers are swelled in winter by visitors from the continent. Although breeding skylarks have declined by more than 50% over the last 25 years, the bird is still widespread in the UK, in both the uplands and lowlands.

The sexes are alike in the plumage, but males are slightly larger. Skylarks usually range in size from 18-19 cm. They have a wing-span of 30-36 cm. Females of the species can weight 17-47 g, while males can weigh 27-55 g. Their bills are short but strong. Skylarks generally have streaked black-brown plumage, some have a yellow or grey overall tone. Their underside is a buff-white. Skylarks have brown-streaked crown feathers that can be raised to a small crest.

Range mass: 17 to 55 g.

Range length: 18 to 19 cm.

Range wingspan: 30 to 36 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.722 W.

Length: 18 cm

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater
• Marine

Skylarks live in areas of open country. They are generally found living in extensive croplands, marshes, or meadows. They prefer to live among cereal grasses or low green herbage. Skylarks avoid wooded areas, even areas with isolated trees seem to be unsuitable. Skylarks feed, nest, and do most other activities on the ground.

Range elevation: 1000 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

Depth range based on 36 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 28 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 0 - 0
  Temperature range (°C): 7.803 - 11.597
  Nitrate (umol/L): 1.227 - 10.807
  Salinity (PPS): 5.715 - 35.226
  Oxygen (ml/l): 6.271 - 8.295
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.231 - 0.640
  Silicate (umol/l): 2.022 - 12.889

Graphical representation

Temperature range (°C): 7.803 - 11.597

Nitrate (umol/L): 1.227 - 10.807

Salinity (PPS): 5.715 - 35.226

Oxygen (ml/l): 6.271 - 8.295

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.231 - 0.640

Silicate (umol/l): 2.022 - 12.889
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: Open country, grasslands, tundra, marshy and sandy areas, and wide forest clearings (AOU 1983). BREEDING: Nests in a shallow depression on the ground, lined with roots, grasses, and hair.

Skylarks utilise a wide range of open habitats including saltmarsh and coastal grazing land, arable farmland and rough grazing in the uplands. The majority of foraging is carried out in short vegetation and once crops reach a certain height in summer, they become less suitable for skylarks.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Skylarks are omnivores that eat seeds and insects. Skylarks are known to eat weed seeds and waste grain. They also eat invertebrates such as beetles, caterpillars, spiders, millipedes, earthworms, and slugs. They forage on the ground, searching for food visually.

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; mollusks; terrestrial worms

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts

Primary Diet: omnivore

Comments: Feeds on seeds, grains, and small invertebrates (including: insects, spiders, earthworms, slugs, and millipedes) (Terres 1980).

Skylarks eat pests such as caterpillars and weed seeds that are detrimental to crops.

Small falcons (Falco) prey on adult skylarks, but these predators are not common. Nestlings and eggs are taken by ground-dwelling predators, such as foxes (Vulpes) and snakes (Serpentes). Humans used to prey upon these birds, capturing them in clap-nets and selling them. This greatly reduced their numbers, but the practice has since been prohibited in England. Skylarks are cryptically colored, helping to camouflage them as they search for prey on the ground.

Known Predators:

• small falcons (Falco)
• foxes (Vulpes)
• snakes (Serpentes)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

During winter, gathers into feeding flocks that may include > 100 individuals.

Male skylarks are more vocal than females. Skylarks are known for the complex songs employed by males. Song flight usually begins with a silent ascent. When they reach an altitude of 50-100 m they begin to hover and circle over territory while continuing to sing. They then begin a spiral descent and cease to sing once 10-20 m are reached. The song itself consists of loud, trli or dji whistles in varying pitch patterns. Frequent repetition occurs as well as trills and tremolos with varying speed, pitch, length, and timbre. Skylarks may also sing on the ground with much the same singing pattern but often quieter, shorter, and consisting of more warbling and pauses.

Skylarks also communicate through a dry chirrup, prriee and prreet call.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

The annual mortality rate for adult skylarks was measured as 33.5% in England. One skylark was documented as living to 8 years 5 months old.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 10.2 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 10.1 years.

Maximum longevity: 10.1 years (wild)

Male skylarks sing throughout the day, starting in the dawn hours. The song is mostly heard February through July, but a more faint song can be heard throughout the rest of the year. They usually begin their song after flying into the air 10-20 m. They then progress to flying 50-100 m up, then slowly spiral down with periods of hovering in the air. This can proceed for 10-15 minutes. The song itself usually consists of singing trills and cadenzas along with babbling and mimicry. It is used as a display to attract females.

Skylarks pair early in the year between April and July. Courting may include high-speed chases in the air and their renowned singing behaviors. The birds are monogamous but only about half of mating pairs remain together after a year.

Mating System: monogamous ; cooperative breeder

Skylark nests are often found near short vegetation and consist of a shallow depression in the ground. The depression is lined with stems and leaves, and the inner part is lined with finer materials like hair. The nest is built primarily by the female, although the male may help to form the depression in the ground. Skylarks lay 3-4, sometimes 5, eggs.

Breeding interval: Skylarks breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Skylarks breed from April to July.

Range eggs per season: 3 to 5.

Range time to hatching: 11 to 15 days.

Average time to hatching: 11 days.

Range fledging age: 8 to 10 days.

Average time to independence: 25 days.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average eggs per season: 3.

Females build the nest with little help from males. Once the young are hatched both parents care for them. Adults gather food for the young by making a pile of insects on the ground. When enough insects are collected, they are carried away to young and the soft parts are fed to them. Females incubate eggs for a period of 11-14 days. Both males and females protect the nest. Hatchlings leave the nest between 8-10 days after they hatch. Skylarks often have two, and sometimes three, broods each season.

Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Male, Female)

Clutch size 3-4. Incubation 11-12 days, by female. Nestlings altricial and downy, tended by both adults, leave nest about 9-10 days after hatching, may not fly until about 21 days old (Terres 1980).

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.


There are 27 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.


Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 27
Specimens with Barcodes: 40
Species With Barcodes: 1

The population size of skylarks introduced in North America is declining due to development in their habitats. Skylarks in Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii are stable. In some areas agricultural practices, and loss of open grasslands and farmlands does threaten skylark populations.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Winter visitor.

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N1B - Critically Imperiled

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Protected under the Wildlife and CountrysideAct (1981), as amended and the Wildlife (Northern Ireland) Order 1985. Listed under the EC Birds Directive

Population

The move to more intensive farming methods is thought to be the main cause of the decline in the skylark. The chief reason is the move from spring to autumn sown crops because, in spring, these crops quickly become too tall and dense for skylarks. Crops sown in spring are still short and thin enough to provide suitable nesting and foraging habitat. Autumn sowing has led to a decline in stubble fields available during the winter months and so reduced the availability of grain and weed seeds. Increasing use of agri-chemicals has reduced the invertebrate populations on which the birds depend for food in the breeding season.

Despite a substantial reduction in population size, the distribution of the skylark has remained fairly constant and the species is still one of our most widespread and familiar birds. The skylark is the subject of an action plan managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), with other partners including English Nature, the British Trust for Ornithology and the Joint Nature Conservancy Council (JNCC). The objectives of the plan are to stabilise the skylark population, and maintain the present breeding numbers of around 2 million pairs. The plan aims to achieve this by encouraging more environmentally friendly methods of farming, including a reduction in the use of agrichemicals. Reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is required, however, if these targets are to be met. The RSPB is currently trialling a project to encourage farmers to leave 'scrapes', or bare patches, when drilling crops in autumn, to improve the spring nesting conditions for skylarks. These 'scrapes' would be made by lifting the seed drill, so that the sward height preferred by the birds would be achieved. These potential nesting sites would be created away from the vehicle access 'tramlines' and the edge of the field, as these tend to be patrolled by potential ground predators.

Skylarks are known to ravage spring cabbage plants and consume corn and other crops cultivated by humans. The advantage of skylarks consuming pests and weed seeds outweighs the disadvantage of their taste for certain crops.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

Skylarks consume the seeds of weeds and detrimental plants as well as detrimental insects. This is advantageous to farmers.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Comments: Formerly named "Eurasian skylark" (see AOU 1995).