Behaviour The species is largely a resident, but undergoes local daily and seasonal movements of up to several dozen kilometres^{2, 3, 6}. It breeds during the wet season months of May to December in West Africa, and July to January in East Africa (subject to local seasonal variation)⁸, nesting in single pairs in territories 0.5-1 square kilometres⁸. During the dry (non-breeding) season it is more congregatory, forming large flocks of up to several hundred individuals^6,8. In southern Sudan it begins to flock along the Nile in November, reaching a peak in late February and March⁸. In Chad it gathers in concentrations after breeding, and then moves south⁸. In Nigeria it is subject to local movements with seasonal changes in water levels⁸. It forages singly, in pairs or in small groups⁸. Habitat Breeding This species is found in wet and dry open habitats, but prefers freshwater marshes, wet grasslands, and the peripheries of water-bodies². In Sudan it is especially found in areas with water up to 1m in depth, and knee-high to hip-high vegetation dominated by Cyperus, Eleocharis, Scirpus, Setaria, Cynodon and various leguminous and rosaceous plants⁹. It always remains near wetlands, but is rarely associated with deep, open water⁸. It often prefers to forage on dry ground with short grass⁹ and, particularly in West Africa, it will sometimes forage and nest in upland areas⁶, rice fields, wet crop fields and even abandoned fields². It prefers to roost in large trees, but will use small trees or shallow water when necessary⁹. Non-breeding during the non-breeding season it congregates in larger permanent wetlands², and often forages near herds of domestic livestock^2,6 or even in rubbish dumps⁹. Diet This species is a generalist omnivore¹⁰. Its primary food source is small grain crops (45%)¹⁰, with small plants, small invertebrates and small vertebrates also featuring in the diet¹⁰. It will take insects (grasshoppers, flies), molluscs, millipedes, crustaceans, fish, amphibians, reptiles, seed heads, grass tips and agricultural grain (corn, rice, millet)^6,8.Breeding site Nests are built on the ground² in densely vegetated wetlands⁶. The nest consists of a round, loosely constructed platform of reeds and grasses placed in short grass marsh in several centimetres of water, or occasionally on dry land⁸. Its base is often over a metre in diameter⁸. Clutch-size is c.2.5 eggs per nest

Red List Category

Red List Criteria

Version

2010

BirdLife International

Calvert, R., Symes, A., Butchart, S.

Beilfuss, R., Hall, P., Williams, E.

This species has been uplisted to Vulnerable as recent surveys have shown a rapid population decline which is predicted to continue into the future, primarily due to habitat loss and trapping for domestication or illegal international trade. However, trend data for the eastern sub-population is poorly known, and should the worst-case scenario for B. p. ceciliae prove to be accurate this species may warrant uplisting in the future.

The western sub-population (B. p. pavonina) was estimated at c.15,000 birds in 2004, and the eastern sub-population (B. p. ceciliae) is less well-known, though estimated at 28,000-55,000 individuals in the same year (Beilfuss et al. 2007).

Decreasing

Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats, occurring through drought, wetland drainage and conversion for agriculture, overgrazing, fire, agricultural and industrial pollution, industrial construction and dam construction (flooding wetlands upstream and dessicating those downstream)^2,10,11,12. Droughts have both directly and indirectly impacted this species's habitat, since they force people to migrate to relatively moist, less populated regions, which are then subjected to the associated pressures mentioned above¹⁰. Considerable hunting pressures also exist^1,11, including capture and sale of live birds, some destined for legal international markets (over 7,000 birds since 1985 when the species was listed on CITES Appendix II⁴). Parts of dead Black Crowned-cranes, notably the head and wings, are used in traditional healing¹⁰. In addition, indiscriminate pesticide application may be leading to harmful bio-accumulation of toxins³, and direct poisoning to reduce crop depredation has been reported in East Africa¹⁰. Warfare and political instability affects nations across the range of the species, and may particularly impact upon those in southern Sudan where the implementation of conservation measures has not been able to proceed¹⁰. Oil exploration in and near the wetlands also poses a threat¹⁰.

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. Listing under Appendix I has been pursued in the past⁷. A collaborative project was launched in 1999 to determine the population size and trend, distribution and threats, and to draft an action plan for the species³. This may help to identify key breeding areas which can be protected².

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct standardised and coordinated surveys to assess the species's total population size. Monitor population trends through regular standardised surveys. Monitor rates of habitat loss and degradation. Monitor levels of hunting pressure. Discourage hunting and irresponsible pesticide use through awareness campaigns.