Table of Contents
Overview
Distribution
Geographic Range
South-central Alaska to northern New Mexico, North America: Lagopus leucura is the only ptarmigan species found south of Canada. It inhabits a harsh environment, characterized by cold, alpine tundra. During the winter, this species resides along stream banks and in high basins above or near timberline areas where willow (Salix sp.) is abundant.
(Encyclopedia Britannica Online, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 1997)
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
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National Distribution
Canada
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: RESIDENT: central Alaska, northern Yukon, southwestern Mackenzie, south to Kenai Peninsula; Vancouver Island, Canada, Cascade Mountains in Washington, and in Rocky Mountains from British Columbia and Alberta south to northern New Mexico; introduced and established outside native range in high central Sierra Nevada in California (see Frederick and Gutierrez [1992] for account of release and range expansion); releases also have been made in the Wallowa Mountains in Oregon, Pike's Peak in Colorado, and Uintah Mountains in Utah.
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Total Length: 30 to 31 cm.
L. leucura is the most petite member of the Tetraonidae family in North America. It is a medium-sized, round-shaped bird whose distinguishing characteristics include: distinct white tail feathers (rectrices) in adults; a small black bill; and feet and legs covered by stiff feathers. The white rectrices differentiate this species from all other ptarmigan species, which have black rectrices. Its heavily feathered legs help to create a "snowshoe" effect, aiding locomotion on snow. Another distinctive trait of the white-tailed ptarmigan is the change of its plumage with the seasons-it molts almost continually from late April to early November. In the spring, summer, and fall, this species assumes a mottled brown-gray coloration, with a white tail and outer wing feathers; in the winter it turns completely white, except for the beak, eye and eye comb, and claws. Thus, L. leucura blends in nearly perfectly with its highly varied surroundings both in the summer and winter.
Males and females only differ slightly in body size, shape, and winter plumage. During breeding season males can be identified by crimson eye combs over (these combs are most prominent during breeding season), and black and white barring on the breast. Females on the other hand, have smaller, pinkish colored eye combs, and they have brown and black plumage with yellow barring.
(Braun et al. 1993, Dickinson 2000, USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center 1997, WFSC)
Range mass: 350 to 425 g.
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Size
Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
- Terrestrial
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Habitat
Winter Habitat: Because willow is so integral to the diet of L. leucura during the winter months, this species generally inhabits areas where willow growth is visible above the snow (along steam beds), or where it has been exposed by wind action.
Breeding Habitat: Both males and females are found on breeding territories in alpine areas above timberline from early May until late June. These territories are characterized by areas where the snow has melted, and willow abundance and proximity to water. For instance, a breeding territory is typically found at an exposed spot at the base of a talus slope, or a windswept saddle or knoll. Research has shown that territories are in areas of tall (>30 cm) willow shrubs and contain more subshrub, moss, and boulder cover than in non-breeding areas. During breeding, L. leucura uses topographic depressions for its nests.
Brood-Rearing Habitat: Hens occupy moist meadows, and flocks are found in areas replete with boulders, in the summer brood-rearing habitat. (This habitat is found at higher elevations than the breeding territories.) Rich vegetation, particularly that found around springs, heads of streams, or below a slow-melting snowfield, is crucial for a brood-rearing area. L. leucura will stay here until it is forced to lower elevations by winter weather.
(Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 1997,
Frederick and Gutierrez 1992)
Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; mountains
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Comments: Alpine tundra, especially in rocky areas with sparse vegetation (AOU 1983). Summer habitats in the Rocky Mountains consistently include moist, low-growing alpine vegetation. In Colorado, percent canopy cover of willow was higher at winter feeding sites than at random sites (Giesen and Braun 1992). In the Sierra Nevada, breeding season habitats were in areas of tall (>30 cm) willow shrubs and contained more subshrub, moss, and boulder cover than in unused habitats; in postbreeding season, used topographic depressions within breeding territories; brooding hens used moist meadows, while flocks occupied sites with abundant boulders; primarily used the Salix anglorum ANTIPLASTA vegetation alliance on rocky, north-facing slopes; willow abundance and proximity to water were important habitat factors (Frederick and Gutierrez 1992). Nests in alpine tundra, in rocky areas or sparsely vegetated, grassy slopes. Tends to search for vacant territory in natal area. High fidelity to breeding territory in successive years.
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Migration
Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
The diet of L. leucura consists primarily of plant matter, including willow buds and leaves, flowers, berries, and lichens. In the winter, willow is key to the white-tailed ptarmigan's survival: willow buds and twigs provide its only source of food. This species also feeds on insects during this season, but to a lesser degree. Following the hatching of chicks (in mid- to late July), females remain and eat vegetation that is still green, such as Geum, Carex, and Polygonum. Lagopus leucura also ingests grit in order to aid in digesting course foods.
(Braun et al. 1993, Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 1997)
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Comments: Winter diet alder catkins, willow buds and twigs (primary winter food in Colorado is willow buds); also buds and needles of spruces, pines, and firs. Spring and summer diet leaves and flowers of herbaceous plants, willow buds, berries, seeds, and insects.
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General Ecology
Broods stay together in family groups until following spring (Harrison 1978). Sedentary. In the Sierra Nevada, overall density was 4.4-5.7/100 ha in breeding season, 4.7-7.1/100 ha postbreeding; density within occupied habitat was 10.5-14.2/100 ha in breeding season, 21.8-27.7/100 ha postbreeding; number of breeding pairs was 1.8/100 ha and 2.8/100 ha in two areas (Frederick and Gutierrez 1992). Overall breeding density at Logan Pass, Montana, was 6.8/100 ha; density within suitable habitat was 19.3/100 ha; 10.6/100 ha postbreeding. In Colorado, breeding density in three unhunted populations was 9.6-11.9/100 ha; 15.7-23.4 postbreeding (see Frederick and Gutierrez 1992). In Colorado, winter home ranges of 17 females averaged 1.62 sq km (4 of these averaged 2.44 sq km); those of 2 males averaged 0.44 sq km; winter density averaged 10-20 birds/sq km (Giesen and Braun 1992).
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Life History and Behavior
Life Expectancy
Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
Females are yearlings when they breed. They take responsibility for building nests, which they loosely construct out of dried vegetation. Females have one brood per season and lay four to seven faintly spotted eggs that measure 43 x 29 mm. The length of incubation lasts from 22 to 24 days.
The reproductive season of L. leucura begins in early spring when males display within groups; later, they disperse to their own breeding territories at higher elevations. Here, they form pairs with females. The new pair remains on this territory until the female begins to lay her eggs in mid- to late June. Soon after the eggs have hatched mid- to late July, the female and her brood join the male who has already settled at higher elevations for the summer.
(Ehrlich et al. 1988, Rennicke 1996,
Utah Division of Wildlife Resources 1997)
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Female incubates 4-7, sometimes 3-9, eggs for 22-23 days (Harrison 1978). Nestlings are precocial and downy. Brood size in Sierra Nevada averaged 2.6-2.8; brood size in five areas in Colorado was 3.2-4.5; brood size at flight age in Montana was 3.3-3.5. Young are guarded by both parents, capable of flying in about 10 days. Monogamous. In the Sierra Nevada, reproductive success decreased with increasing spring snow depth (Condor 94:622-627).
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Lagopus leucura
There are 5 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank. Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species. See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
-- end --
Download FASTA File
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Statistics of barcoding coverage: Lagopus leucura
Public Records: 5
Species: 5
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Contributor/s
Justification
History
- 2008Least Concern
- 2004Least Concern
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Conservation Status
This species is not endangered. It is harbored in US protected areas, such as Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado. Because its habitat is still more or less undisturbed, the historic range of this species has been preserved. Nonetheless, L. leucura has not entirely escaped human activities. Today, road construction, mining, all-terrain vehicles, and ski area development, just to name a few, decrease the amount of food available to L. leucura during the winter.
Braun et al. 1993, MacDonald 2000)
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
L. leucura may be hunted. It has been shown, however, that reduced breeding densities as well as a lower average age of birds that breed are common in populations that have been over-hunted.
(Braun et al. 1993)
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Wikipedia
White-tailed Ptarmigan
The White-tailed Ptarmigan, Lagopus leucura, is the smallest bird in the grouse family. It is found in the mountains of the western United States, Canada and Alaska.
Contents |
Description
The White-tailed Ptarmigan is the smallest of the ptarmigans and the smallest bird in the grouse family. Adults are 11.8 to 12.2 inches (30 to 31 cm) long, with the males being only slightly larger than the females. The average weight is 11.6 to 16.9 ounces (330 to 480 g).[2] In the winter, this bird displays white plumage, while it appears grayish brown and speckled during the summer months. [3] Both sexes maintain white tail and wing feathers year-round, and males are identified by reddish eyecombs year-round. [4] http://worldbirdinfo.net/Pages/BirdMediaView.aspx [5]
The White-tailed Ptarmigan is the only bird to permanently reside in the alpine zone. [6] This zone includes rocky areas, krummholz, snowfields, and meadows. [7]
Distribution
The White-tailed Ptarmigan is an alpine species, a permanent resident of the high mountains above timber line. It occupies open country and flies a great deal more than forest grouse, but still prefers running to flying. It ranges from Alaska and western Canada south to northern New Mexico.
The White-tailed Ptarmigan has been introduced into the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California, Wallowa Mountains in Oregon, and Uinta Mountains of Utah.[8][9] Males return from their timberline wintering areas to establish territories on spruce-willow timberline breeding grounds in April. Females arrive in early May and pairs are formed.
Diet
This herbivorous bird's diet varies seasonally. Nitrogen-rich snow buttercup leaves are favored in the spring season, while willow catkins, alpine avens flowers, and chickweed blooms form the majority of the ptarmigan's diet in the summer. [10] Once fall and winter arrive to the region, the ptarmigan prefers seeds, willow buds and twigs. Winter food sources have a much higher cellulose content than summer forage, so the ptarmigan relies on bacteria-aided digestion in the cecum to extract essential nutrients. [11]
Ptarmigan chicks begin their lives eating insects. Once the chicks' digestive tracts and ceca are more fully developed, their diets shift to one of flowers and leaves. [12] Hens choose foraging patches where plant species containing proteins are abundant. The hens call their chicks to these plants, which are critical for the growth and development of the chicks. This suggests that the hens' food calls assist in enhancing survival rates of juvenile ptarmigans. [13]
Breeding
The White-tailed Ptarmigan nests in shallow depressions in snow-free areas. These areas, generally protected from wind, are softened with grasses and a few feathers. One side of the nest is generally left open as an escape route. [14]
Males are usually monogamous and remain with the same mate for one breeding season. To attract females, a male will strut and display his tail feathers. [15] The female builds a simple scrape nest on the ground, while the male acts as a sentry to guard the nest. [16]
A clutch consists of 2-8 eggs, which retain a cinnamon color for most of the gestational period, but develop brown spots just prior to hatching. [17] http://www.pbase.com/image/126655318 [18] The precocial young leave the nest 6 to 12 hours after hatching. [19] Males remain with the females until the eggs hatch, which spans the incubation period of about 23 days. Juvenile ptarmigans remain with the mother through the autumn season. [20]
Adaptations and Indicator Species
The White-tailed Ptarmigan has feathers located on its feet to serve as protection from the extreme cold often experienced in the alpine tundra environment. [21] In addition, these birds have feathers around their nostrils to warm the air prior to entry into the respiratory tract. [22] The most obvious adaptation is this bird's cryptic coloration, which enables it to blend in with its environment and avoid predation. [23] http://www.hancockwildlife.org/forum/viewtopic.php?showtopic=1276&page=69 [24] To conserve energy during the winter months, the ptarmigan avoids flight and roosts in snowbanks. During the summer, the ptarmigan eats grit to assist in digesting plant material. [25]
This bird serves as an indicator species for the alpine tundra, and denotes overall ecosystem health. Currently, this bird is not a conservation concern and is abundant in alpine zones across North America, indicating that this region is not undergoing dramatic climatic, temperature, or precipitation shifts. [26] The lack of overgrazing due to cattle, the lack of human development in alpine zones, and the laws regarding hunting bag limits allow the White-tailed Ptarmigan to thrive. [27]
Etymology
The Ptarmigan's genus name, Lagopus, is derived from Ancient Greek lagos (λαγως), meaning "hare", + pous (πους), "foot", in reference to the bird's feathered legs (see also Snowshoe Hare). The species name leucura was for a long time misspelt leucurus, in the erroneous belief that the ending of Lagopus denotes masculine gender. However, as the Ancient Greek term λαγωπους is of feminine gender, and the species name has to agree with that, the feminine leucura is correct.[28] The species name leucura is derived from the Latinized version of the Greek leukos, meaning "white", + oura, meaning "tail"., in reference to the bird's white tail year around.[29]
References
- ^ BirdLife International (2009). "Lagopus leucura". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/141363. Retrieved 01 February 2010.
- ^ http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/White-tailed_Ptarmigan/lifehistory
- ^ Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2011). Life-history and demographic variation in an alpine specialist at the latitudinal extremes of the range. Population Ecology, Vol. 53(3), 459-471.
- ^ Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2011). Life-history and demographic variation in an alpine specialist at the latitudinal extremes of the range. Population Ecology, Vol. 53(3), 459-471.
- ^ http://worldbirdinfo.net/Pages/BirdMediaView.aspx?BirdID=32311&Source=%2FPages%2FBirdsSearch.aspx%3FBirdField%3D6%26BirdSearch%3DTETRAONIDAE%253AGrouse%252CPtarmigan
- ^ Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2011). Life-history and demographic variation in an alpine specialist at the latitudinal extremes of the range. Population Ecology, Vol. 53(3), 459-471.
- ^ Wilson, S. & Martin, K. (2011). Life-history and demographic variation in an alpine specialist at the latitudinal extremes of the range. Population Ecology, Vol. 53(3), 459-471.
- ^ http://www.rmbo.org/pif/bcp/phy62/tundra/wtpt.htm
- ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/2845146
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Allen, T. & Clarke, J. A. (2005). Social learning of food preferences by white-tailed ptarmigan chicks. Animal Behaviour, Vol. 70(2), 305-310.
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Allen, T. & Clarke, J. A. (2005). Social learning of food preferences by white-tailed ptarmigan chicks. Animal Behaviour, Vol. 70(2), 305-310.
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Allen, T. & Clarke, J. A. (2005). Social learning of food preferences by white-tailed ptarmigan chicks. Animal Behaviour, Vol. 70(2), 305-310.
- ^ http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/white-tailed_ptarmigan/id
- ^ http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/white-tailed_ptarmigan/id
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Martin, K. & Wiebe, K. L. (2004). Coping Mechanisms of Alpine and Arctic Breeding Birds: Extreme Weather and Limitations to Reproductive Resilience. Integrative and Comparative Biology, Vol. 44(2), 177-185.
- ^ http://wildlife.state.co.us/Viewing/Features/ViewingPtarmigan.htm
- ^ Benedict, A. D. “Islands in the Sky: Alpine Tundras.” The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Golden: Fulcrum Publishing, 2008. 574-626.
- ^ Hancock Wildlife Foundation
- ^ Martin, K. & Wiebe, K. L. (2004). Coping Mechanisms of Alpine and Arctic Breeding Birds: Extreme Weather and Limitations to Reproductive Resilience. Integrative and Comparative Biology, Vol. 44(2), 177-185.
- ^ Martin, K. & Wiebe, K. L. (2004). Coping Mechanisms of Alpine and Arctic Breeding Birds: Extreme Weather and Limitations to Reproductive Resilience. Integrative and Comparative Biology, Vol. 44(2), 177-185.
- ^ http://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/white-tailed_ptarmigan/lifehistory
- ^ David, Normand & Gosselin, Michel (2002). "The grammatical gender of avian genera.". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 122 (4): 257–282.
- ^ http://fwp.mt.gov/mtoutdoors/HTML/articles/portraits/ptarmigan.htm
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Names and Taxonomy
Taxonomy
Comments: Ellsworth et al. (1995) examined phylogenetic relationships among North American grouse based on mtDNA data and found that Falcipennis canadensis is more closely related to Bonasa umbellus (ruffed grouse) than to Dendragapus obscurus (blue grouse), which is allied with Lagopus (ptarmigan) and Tetrao (capercaillie, a European grouse).
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