Introduction:

The Lycaenidae as construed here includes the blues, coppers and hairstreaks, but not the metalmarks, which are viewed as a sister-family Riodinidae, based on the combined phylogenetic analysis of morphological and molecular data by Wahlberg et al. (2005).

Diversity description:

Western Blue (id pending) The largest and most biologically diverse of all butterfly families, containing more than 6000 species (however this figure includes the riodinids, which have also been considered a family in their own right). The apomorphies included here are those used to justify a Lycaenidae that includes the riodinids and the curetines (also considered a family by some).

The Lycaenidae as construed here includes the blues, coppers and hairstreaks, but not the metalmarks, which are viewed as a sister-family Riodinidae, based on the combined phylogenetic analysis of morphological and molecular data by Wahlberg et al. (2005). The vast majority of lycaenids are in the clade that includes the blues (Polyommatinae), coppers (Lycaeninae) and hairstreaks (Theclinae). Eliot (who viewed these taxa as tribes of a more inclusive Lycaeninae in Corbet et al. 1992) implied that Aphnaeinae is the sister group to the other three subfamilies based on characters of the larval head capsule.

Lycaenidae (Gossamer-Winged Butterflies)
These are small butterflies with iridescent colors. The three most important subfamilies are the Hairstreaks (Theclinae), Coppers (Lycaeninae), and Blues (Polyommotinae). Butterflies in this family often visit composite flowers (Asteraceae) and small wildflowers from other families. Theclinae (Hairstreaks): These butterflies are silvery grey with rows of red or blue dots on the wing undersides, while the uppersides (exposed when the wings are outstretched) are a drab gray, brown, or black. Sometimes there is a small tail on each hindwing. The caterpillars feed on various trees and shrubs, including willows, wild cherries, hawthorns, oaks, hickories, and sumac. The species Strymon melinus (Gray Hairstreak), also feeds on some herbaceous plants, such as Mallows and Smartweeds. Lycaeninae (Coppers): These butterflies are orange and silvery gray with scattered black dots on the wing undersides. The uppersides have vivid orange and black patterns, although they are sometimes greyish or purplish in overall appearance. The larvae feed primarily on Rumex spp. (Dock) and Polygonum spp. (Smartweed and Knotweed). Polyommotinae (Blues): The Blues are silvery grey, or blue on the wing undersides, with rows of black dots and a patch of orange on the hindwings. The wing uppersides are silvery blue with white or black edges. Some species have small tails on the hind wings, and females are sometimes gray on the uppersides. The caterpillars of Blues usually feed on legumes, although the caterpillars of Celastrina argiolus (Spring/Summer Azure) feed on various small trees and shrubs, including Dogwood, Wild Cherry, Sumac, New Jersey Tea, and Viburnum. The caterpillars of Blues often secrete a honey dew that attracts ants.

Geographic Range:

Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, Neotropical, Australian, Oceanic Island

Geographic Range description:

Cosmopolitan distribution, including species endemic to New Zealand, Hawaii and many other Pacific islands). Greatest diversity in the tropics.  From Scoble, 1992:  The Lipeninae are Afrotropical. Poritiinae are Oriental. Liphyrinae are mainly African with a few species in the Oriental and Australasian regions. Miletinae occur mostly in Africa or the Orient, some are present in the Holarctic region. Curetinae are Oriental with a few Palaearctic representatives. Theclinae are represented in all the main zoogeographical areas. Lycaeninae occur mainly in the Holarctic region. Polyommatinae are represented in all major biogeographical areas.

Texture:

ridged

Description of egg morphology:

From Scoble, 1992: "The diameter of the egg usually exceeds that of its height, or the egg may be almost spherical. Often, lycaenid eggs are pitted or bear projections. In eggs of most species parts of the highly porous chorion is perforated by numerous pores enable it to act as a plastron when eggs are submerged in rain water (Downey and Allyn, 1981)"

Larval abdomen description:

From Scoble 1992: "The larva (Downey in Stehr, 1987) is usually onisciform, resembling the shape of a woodlouse." "The abdomen often bears a dorsal gland on segment A7, a pair of eversible organs on segment A8, and minute, round "pore cupolas' associated particularly with the dorsal gland and the eversible organs."

Abdominal glands:

absent

Crochets:

uniserial

Crochet arrangement description:

From Scoble 1992: Crochets are usually "tri- to multiordinal, and arranged in an interrupted mesoseries."

Pupa description:

From Scoble, 1992: "The pupal is often girdled. Where not girdled, it may be positioned at an angle to the substrate or be suspended with the head downwards."

Epiphysis:

absent

Forelegs:

normal, reduced

Leg description:

Foreleg in males usually reduced with the tarsal segments typically fused and the pretarsus reduced but in females normally developed. The forelegs are used for walking in most species.  Tibial spurs may be entirely absent 0-0-2 or 0-1-1

Wing venation??description:

The humeral vein is present or absent in the hindwing (Scoble 1992; Eliot 1973; Munroe, 1982). Vein CuP is usually absent from both wings.

Wing coupling:

present

Wing coupling description:

From Scoble 1992: "There is no frenular-retinacular system in true butterflies, wing coupling is said to be effected by an amplexiform system made possible by the expanded humeral area. The forewing-metathoracic locking-device is absent.

Forewing description:

From Scoble 1992: "At least some stalking of the radial veins of the forewing occurs."

Counter-tympanum:

absent

Counter-tympanum description:

n/a

Abdomen tympanum:

absent

Abdomen tympanum description:

Although there are no tympanal structures, in the pupae rows of tubercles on the posterior edge of A5 are rubbed against tubercles on the anterior edge of A6, to produce sound.

Thorax tympanum:

absent

Thorax tympanum description:

n/a

Palp tympanum:

absent

Palp tympanum description:

n/a

Ocelli:

absent

Eyes:

smooth, hairy

Labial palpus:

upcurved

Number of labial palp segments:

from 3

Labial palpus modification:

Usually well developed and ascending but occasionally reduced (Scoble, 1992)

Maxillary palpus:

absent

Number of chaetosomata:

from present

Proboscis:

present

Proboscis texture:

naked

Adult head description:

From Watson and Dallwitz 2007: "Eyes conspicuously white-rimmed, notched or emarginate at the bases of the antennae and contiguous with the bases of the antennal sockets; hairy, or glabrous."

Apomorphies:

Antennal base adjacent to margin of compound eye, and usually indenting it.  Reduction of the metathoracic wing case of the pupa.  Spatulate lobe on larval abdominal prolegs which interrupts the mesoseries of crochets.  Absence of larval eversible prothoracic gland

Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Aplomya confinis is endoparasitoid of larva of Lycaenidae

Pupa life history description:

Some Lycaenidae produce sound by abdominal stridulation: rows of tubercles on the posterior edge of segment A5 are rubbed against rows of tubercles on the anterior edge of segment A6.

Systematic and taxonomic history:

The relationhip between the lycaenids and riodinids is undetermined. Traditionally the riodinids have been considered a subfamily within the Lycaenidae, but this is not well supported. Harvey (1987) proposed 5 characters (based on early stages) that support a sister relationship between the two groups. However, Robbins (1988a, 1990)

Fossil record:

link to fossil information

View Lycaenidae Tree

The higher classification of Lycaenidae is currently in flux. The subfamilies, tribes and subtribes enumerated within this clade are for the most part the groups listed by Eliot (1973, 1992 [in Corbet et al.]). Note that the higher classifications presented by Eliot in 1973 and 1992 differ from one another in that the 1992 version reduced the three diverse subfamilies Lycaeninae, Polyommatinae and Theclinae to tribes within an inclusive "Lycaeninae," in order to reflect their affinity to one another with respect to Curetinae, Poritiinae and Miletinae. That change has not been generally adopted by the lycaenid research community (R. K. Robbins, pers. comm, 4/08), and has not been incorporated here. Note also that Eliot's classification was intuitive, and the monophyly and implied relationships among these groups should therefore be viewed as tentative, pending revelations from the large amount of molecular evidence that is currently being gathered by Naomi Pierce and colleagues. The relationships shown among the four subfamilies are those inferred by Wahlberg et al. (2005).

Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Lycaenidae

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) Stats
                                                             

Specimen Records:	10,619
Specimens with Sequences:	9,423
Specimens with Barcodes:	8,923
Public Records:	2,647
Species:	1,444
Species With Barcodes:	1,330

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