The Australian Giant Cuttlefish (Sepia apama) is the largest cuttlefish species in the world, with a maximum recorded size of 520 mm mantle length (ML) and 6.2 kg weight . It is endemic to Australian waters, with a distribution reported to extend across temperate southern Australia from southern Queensland to Point Cloates in Western Australia, and including northern Tasmania. Its life span is 1 year, perhaps 2 in some cases. It occurs on rocky reefs, seagrass beds and areas of mud and sand to depths of 100m. This species is famous for its unique and very large spawning aggregation that occurs every austral fall (May - July) in northern Spencer Gulf, northwest of Adelaide.

References

Hall, K. C. and R. T. Hanlon. 2002. Principal features of the mating system of a large spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Mollusca : Cephalopoda). Mar Biol 140: 533-545

Norman, M. R. 2000. Cephalopods, a world guide : Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, Arctic, Antarctic, ConchBooks, Hackenheim, Germany 318 pp.

Wikipedia

This is the only known large spawning aggregation of cuttlefish in the world.

Largest cuttlefish species in the world, endemic to southern Australian waters.

Sepia apama is the Australian Giant Cuttlefish. It is the world\'s largest cuttlefish species, growing to 50 cm in mantle length and over 10.5 kg in weight. S. apama is native to the coast of Australia, from Brisbane in Queensland to Shark Bay in Western Australia. It occurs on rocky reefs, seagrass beds, and sand and mud seafloor to a depth of 100 m. Breeding takes place with the onset of the southern winter. Males abandon their normal cryptic colouring and set out to dazzle the females by adopting rapidly changing bright colours and striking patterns. Devious males mimic female colouring and form in order to gain access to females protected by dominant males. Death follows shortly after mating and laying of eggs that will spawn the next generation. Sepia apama are primarily diurnal and have a small home range (90-550 meters) over short recording periods. They are able to channel most of their energy directly into growth because they spend 95% of the day resting, suggesting bioenergetics more like that of an octopus than a squid. Very little time is spent foraging (3.7% during the day and 2.1% during the night), most of their time is spent resting and hiding in crevices from predators. The exception to this behavioral routine is the mass spawning aggregation, where cuttlefish are far more active during the days or weeks that they spend there.

Sepia apama skin posesses a dense layer of pigmented chromatophore organs of 3 color classes: yellow, red, and black/brown, as well as underlying structural reflectors of 2 types: iridophores (creating iridescence in the skin ) and leucophores, which produce whiteness in their body patterns. They also have controllable skin papillae that can dramatically alter their appearance. The overall appearance of the animal - termed the body pattern - can change in less than a second due to direct neural control of the skin patterns. This is unique among all animals but is characteristic of cephalopods.

Reference

Oceanworld Cuttlefish Fact Files

Adelaide, Australia, FAO fishing area 57, FAO fishing area 71, FAO fishing area 81

Distribution map of S. apama. (Credit: Mark Norman & Amanda Reid, 2000)

Sepia apama occurs in the southern half of Austrlia from Brisbane in the east to Sharks Bay in the west.

Reference

Norman, M. R. 2000. Cephalopods, a world guide : Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, Arctic, Antarctic, ConchBooks, Hackenheim, Germany 318 pp.

The giant cuttelfish is the largest cuttelfish species in the world. Sepia apama have eight sucker-lined arms and two retractable tentacles, which they use for capturing prey. Cuttlefish have a highly developed central nervous system and well developed complex eyes. They have a thick, internal calcified shell (the "cuttlebone") beneath an elongated muscular mantle. The mantle is expanded and contracted to expel water from the mantle cavity through the funnel. The mouth consists of a parrot-like beak, jaws, and a rasping tongue (a typical molluscan radula).

References

Animal Diversity Web

BBC Giant Cuttlefish Fact File

Hanlon, R.T. & J.B. Messenger. 1996. Cephalopod Behaviour. Cambridge University Press, 232pp.

Nixon, M. & J. Z. Young. 2003. The Brains and Lives of Cephalopods. Oxford University Press, 392pp

Diagnostic features: Adults very large. Sucker-bearing surface of tentacular club raised off of the stalk, attached only by a thin membrane; 5 suckers in rows across the manus, median suckers enlarged; swimming keel of the club extending along stalk a distance equal to the club length. Web between arms deep: equal to half of arm length between dorsal arms, two-thirds of arm length between lateral arms, absent between ventral arms. Three flat, semicircular, flap-like papillae posterior to each eye. Fins broad. Colour: deep maroon.

References

Roper, C. F. E., M. J. Sweeney and C. E. Nauen. 1984 FAO Species Catalogue Vol 3. Cephalopods of the World: An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of Species of Interest to Fisheries. FAO Fisheries Synopsis 125(3).

Depth range based on 8 specimens in 1 taxon.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 5 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 1.5 - 71.5
  Temperature range (°C): 14.137 - 17.433
  Nitrate (umol/L): 0.094 - 2.747
  Salinity (PPS): 35.417 - 35.773
  Oxygen (ml/l): 5.358 - 5.626
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.139 - 0.312
  Silicate (umol/l): 0.831 - 2.015

Graphical representation

Depth range (m): 1.5 - 71.5

Temperature range (°C): 14.137 - 17.433

Nitrate (umol/L): 0.094 - 2.747

Salinity (PPS): 35.417 - 35.773

Oxygen (ml/l): 5.358 - 5.626

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.139 - 0.312

Silicate (umol/l): 0.831 - 2.015
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

S. apama is native to southern Australia, from Brisbane in the east to Shark Bay in the west. It occurs on rocky reefs, seagrass beds, and sand and mud seafloor to a depth of 100 m.

In general, the sex ratio in the populations is thought to be 1:1. However, there is a highly skewed male-biased operational sex ratio in the spawning aggregation (up to 11:1). This is the highest known among cephalopods. The change in the S. apama sex ratio during the spawning season (from more to less skewed towards males) suggests that males arrive before females at the start of the season. Therefore, males may not aggregate in response to a concentration of females, but rather at a particular location or habitat type. Recent genetic evidence (using allozyme electrophoresis, microsatellites and mitochondrial nucleotide sequences) has revealed three major genetically distinct groups of Sepia apama. It has been recommended that each of these groups be managed separately to preserve genetic diversity.

Reference

Hall, K. C. and R. T. Hanlon. 2002. Principal features of the mating system of a large spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Mollusca : Cephalopoda). Mar Biol 140: 533-545

S. apama is native to southern Australia, from Brisbane in the east to Shark Bay on the west coast. It occurs on rocky reefs, seagrass beds, and sand and mud seafloor to a depth of 100 m.

Sepia apama eat crustaceans and fish and have many predatorrs including: fur seals, sea lions, albatross, dolphins and sharks.

References

Battam, H. and W. A. Buttemer. 2000. Some aspects of energy assimilation and use in four southern albatrosses. Marine Ornithology 28.

Gales, R., D. Pemberton, C. C. Lu, and M. R. Clarke. 1993. Cephalopod diet of the Australian fur seal - variation due to location, season and sample type. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 44: 657-671.

McIntosh, R. R., B. Page, and S. D. Goldsworthy. 2006. Dietary analysis of regurgitates and stomach samples from free-living Australian sea lions. Wildl Res 33: 661-669.

Animal Diversity Web

Giant cuttlefish have the remarkable ability to dynamically change color and pattern for a wide variety of key behaviors involving camouflage and communication. Sepia apama is mainly active during the day and uses camouflage to hide among rock reefs and seaweed. Cuttlefish usually sit on or hover slightly above the bottom. Sepia apama can move slowly with stealth, swim or employ jet propulsion in bursts of surprising speed. This species preys on live fish, crabs and other crustaceans. All members of the Sepioidea use jets of ink to confuse foes during escapes. They are generally solitary animals (except when breeding) and curious about divers. Sepia apama skin posesses a dense layer of pigmented chromatophores, mainly yellow, red, black and brown, as well as a wide variety of iridophores (creating iridescence in the skin for camouflage and communication) and leucophores that produce whiteness in their body patterns. They also have controllable skin papillae that can dramatically alter their appearance.

In addition to camouflaging themselves during daylight hours, Sepia apama uses adaptable night camouflage to conceal itself from nightime predators; animals in spawning aggregations have been shown to cease sexual signaling behaviors and become sessile and camouflaged during the night. Remarkably, the camouflaged body patterns at night are tailored to each microhabitat that the animal might rest in, providing evidence that their night vision is excellent and that night predators also have keen vision.

References

Hanlon, R. T., M. J. Naud, J. W. Forsythe, K. Hall, A. C. Watson, and J. McKechnie. 2007. Adaptable night camouflage by cuttlefish. Am Nat 169: 543-551

EurekAlert! Stealth camouflage at night

Cuttlefish are capable of showing dozens of body patterns for camouflage and these body patterns can be grouped into three categories: uniform/stipple, mottle, and disruptive. Aside from skin patterns, cuttlefish can augment camouflage with postural and 3-D skin texture: by contorting their arms in different postures that generally imitate nearby algae, and by sprouting spiky skin projections, called papillae, imitating the physical texture of the surrounding seaweed, rock or coral. The chromatophores and skin papillae can change about one second faster than any other animal. Both skin texture and color changes are directly controlled by the animal's brain. Messages enter the brain through the eye via the optic nerve, are processed in the CNS, and then the skin is changed by direct neural control of the pigmented chromatophores.

References

Hanlon, R. T. and J. B. Messenger. 1996. Cephalopod Behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Hanlon, R. T., M. J. Naud, J. W. Forsythe, K. Hall, A. C. Watson, and J. McKechnie. 2007. Adaptable night camouflage by cuttlefish. Am Nat 169: 543-551

Mathger, L. M., A. Barbosa, S. Miner, and R. T. Hanlon. 2006. Color blindness and contrast perception in cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) determined by a visual sensorimotor assay. Vision Research 46(11): 1746-1753.

Oceanworld Cuttlefish Fact Files

Every winter thousands of Giant Cuttlefish (Sepia apama Gray) aggregate to spawn along a restricted area of rocky reef in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia. It is the only known spawning aggregation of cuttlefish in the world and represents an exceptional cuttlefish mating system of high complexity. Females move around the area paying little heed to males, and males pursue females and compete for them. S. apama male tactics are diverse. Females attach their eggs individually to the underside of rocks, ledges, and caves in subtidal rocky reef habitats, and the eggs hatch in 3–5 months.

References

Hall, K. C. and R. T. Hanlon. 2002. Principal features of the mating system of a large spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Mollusca : Cephalopoda). Mar Biol 140: 533-545

ABC News Article: So, which rock did you crawl out from under? Deep-sea dates do the business off Whyalla

Short Story: King of the Cross-Dressers

The University of Adelaide News Story: Cross-dressing cuttlefish to sex up tourism

Discover Magazine: Cuttlefish in Love

The Independent News Article: Cross-dressing cuttlefish is Casanova of the reef

Since the sex ratio on the spawning grounds ranges from 4-11 males/1 female, there is a high level of competition for females. Males on the spawning grounds are sexually dimorphic by size. Large males (mean 370 mm mantle length, ML) pair with and guard females (mean 250 mm ML) temporarily (pre- and postcopulation). Large lone males search for lone females or challenge consorts with agonistic displays. Large males engage in agonistic contests that pass through increasingly complex stages of display, culminating in a dramatic passing cloud display and sometimes physical contact and biting (see video of courtship behavior). Contests ended with one male swimming away. Small lone males guard females if there is no large male in the vicinity, or search for lone females with whom they mate without guarding. Small males (150–250 mm ML) may also use opportunities for extrapair copulations (EPCs). They use "open stealth" (overt sneak mating), "hidden stealth" (concealed sneak mating, e.g. under a rock) and female mimicry to achieve sneaker EPCs (see video of males mimicking females). Female mimicry leads to increased acceptance of mating with the female, and to immediate fertilization, as demonstrated by DNA fingerprinting.

References

Hall, K. C. and R. T. Hanlon. 2002. Principal features of the mating system of a large spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Mollusca : Cephalopoda). Mar Biol 140: 533-545

Hanlon, R. T., M. J. Naud, P. W. Shaw, and J. N. Havenhand. 2005. Behavioural ecology - Transient sexual mimicry leads to fertilization. Nature 433: 212-212

Naud, M. J., R. T. Hanlon, K. C. Hall, P. W. Shaw, and J. N. Havenhand. 2004. Behavioural and genetic assessment of reproductive success in a spawning aggregation of the Australian giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama. Anim Behav 67: 1043-1050

Norman, M. R. 2000. Cephalopods, a world guide : Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean, Arctic, Antarctic, ConchBooks, Hackenheim, Germany 318p

Females ultimately determine whether to accept a mating attempt. They reject a large percentage of mating attempts (up to 70%) and sometimes reject large consort males to mate with a small lone male. Females possess a sperm receptacle below the mouth and may use stored sperm from this receptacle or sperm from spermatangia placed in the buccal area to fertilize their eggs. Thus, females may accumulate sperm from consecutive matings and create considerable potential for sperm competition; it is not known if females exert cryptic sperm choice. Individual females can be extremely active on the spawning grounds: in a single day one female was documented to mate 17 times, with 8 different males, and lay 37 eggs in the course of 9 hours.

References

Hall, K. C. and R. T. Hanlon. 2002. Principal features of the mating system of a large spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Mollusca : Cephalopoda). Mar Biol 140: 533-545

Hanlon R, T. and J. B. Messenger. 1996. Cephalopod Behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

Naud, M. J., R. T. Hanlon, K. C. Hall, P. W. Shaw, and J. N. Havenhand. 2004. Behavioural and genetic assessment of reproductive success in a spawning aggregation of the Australian giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama. Anim Behav 67: 1043-1050

Female Sepia apama alternate mating with egg-laying and often mate with multiple males between egg-laying events. Mating occurs in the head-to-head position during which the male flushes water over the buccal area before placing spermatophores there. Eggs are extruded singly and held amidst the female's arms - this appears as a bulge in her arms; at this time, sperm from the spermatangia in that area, or sperm released from the sperm receptacle, compete to fertilize the egg. Females then attach their eggs individually to the underside of rocks, ledges and reefs in subtidal rocky habitat.

Reference

Hall, K. C. and R. T. Hanlon. 2002. Principal features of the mating system of a large spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Mollusca : Cephalopoda). Mar Biol 140: 533-545.

Naud, M. J., R. T. Hanlon, K. C. Hall, P. W. Shaw, and J. N. Havenhand. 2004. Behavioural and genetic assessment of reproductive success in a spawning aggregation of the Australian giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama. Anim Behav 67: 1043-1050.

Sepia apama have a life span of 1-2 years. Not much is known about their life history outside of the breeding season. Breeding takes place during the austral winter (May to September), when hundreds of thousands of animals aggregate in northern Spencer Gulf to mate and lay eggs. Recent research based on analysis of growth increments of cuttlebones suggests that Sepia apama has two alternative life cycles (for both sexes). The first involves rapid juvenile growth during the first summer after hatching, with maturity reached within 7–8 months. These individuals return to spawn in their first year as small individuals. The second life cycle involves much slower juvenile growth during the first summer, with maturity deferred until their second year, when they return to spawn as much larger individuals.

Reference

Hall, K. C., A. J. Fowler, and M. C. Geddes. 2007. Evidence for multiple year classes of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia. Rev Fish Biol Fish 17: 367-384.

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Sepiida
Family: Sepiidae
Genus: Sepia
Species: Sepia apama

References

ITIS Report: Sepia apama

Gray, J. E. 1849. Catalogue of the Mollusca in the British Museum. Part I. Cephalopoda Antepedia. 164.

Lipinski, M. R., F. A. Naggs, and M. A. Roeleveld / N. A. Voss, M. Vecchione et al., eds. 1998. Nominal type specimens of Sepiidae in The Natural History Museum, London (BMNH). Systematics and Biogeography of Cephalopods. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 586 (I-II): 157.

Lu, C. C. / N. A. Voss, M. Veccione, R. B. Toll and M. J. Sweeney, eds. 1998. A synopsis of Sepiidae in Australian waters (Sepioidea: Cephalopoda). Systematics and Biogeography of Cephalopods. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 586 (I-II): 159-190.

Sweeney, M. J. and C. F. E. Roper / N. A. Voss, M. Vecchione, R. B. Toll and M. J. Sweeney, eds. 1998. Classification, type localities and type repositories of recent Cephalopoda. Systematics and Biogeography of Cephalopods. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 586 (I-II): 561-599.

Amplisepia parysatis Iredale, 1954, Sepia palmata Owen, 1881

References

Iredale, T. 1954. Cuttle-fish "Bones" again. Australian Zoologist 1(1): 63-82.

Rudman, W. B. 1983. The Cephalopod Collections of the Australian Museum. Memoirs of the Museum of Victoria 44: 67-68.

Lu, C. C. / N. A. Voss, M. Veccione, R. B. Toll and M. J. Sweeney, eds. 1998. A synopsis of Sepiidae in Australian waters (Sepioidea: Cephalopoda). Systematics and Biogeography of Cephalopods. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 586 (I-II): 159-190.

Owen, R. 1881. Descriptions of some new and rare Cephalopoda (Part II). Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 11(5): 131-170.

Cuttlefish have a uniquely shaped pupil comprising several slits in different orientations - some are W-shaped and others, like S. apama, have one horizontal slit that bends obliquely vertical. Light entering the eye is controlled by altering the shape of the entire eyeball. To focus on nearby objects a cuttlefish contracts a surrounding layer of the muscle, moving the lens forward, away from the retina and it focuses on distant objects by drawing the lens in. Cuttlefish are known to be color-blind, having only one visual pigment at 492nm. Despite being color-blind cuttlefish are very good at blending into colorful natural environments (at least in shallow depths of water).

References

Oceanworld Cuttlefish Fact Files

Marshall, N. J. and J. B. Messenger. 1996. Colour-blindcamouflage. Nature 382: 408–409

Mathger, L., A. Barbosa, S. Miner and R. T. Hanlon. 2006. Color blindness and contrast perception in cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) determined by a visual sensorimotor assay. Vision Res. 46: 1746-1753.

A recent energetics study found that Sepia apama are primarily diurnal and have a small home range (90-550 meters) over short recording periods. They are able to channel most of their energy directly into growth because they spend 95% of the day resting, suggesting bioenergetics more like that of an octopus than a squid. Very little time is spent foraging (3.7% during the day and 2.1% during the night), most of their time is spent resting and hiding in crevices from predators. The exception to this behavioral routine is the mass spawning aggregation, where cuttlefish are far more active during the days or weeks that they spend there.

References

Aitken, J. P., R. K. O'Dor and G. D. Jackson. 2005. The secret life of the giant Australian cuttlefish Sepia apama (Cephalopoda): Behaviour and energetics in nature revealed through radio acoustic positioning and telemetry (RAPT). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 320: 77-91

Several microsatellite markers have been produced for the assessment of genetic diversity and paternity analyses in Sepia apama (Genbank accession numbers EF368216-224, AY617047, AY617024, AY616977, AY616950, AF533071-8, AY294335-353). Recent genetic evidence (using allozyme electrophoresis, microsatellites and mitochondrial nucleotide sequences) has revealed three major genetically distinct groups of Sepia apama. It has been recommended that each of these groups be managed separately to preserve genetic diversity. Initial paternity analysis of the complex mating system of the giant cuttlefish indicates that this mating system has a high level of multiple mating that results in multiple paternity; males of any size or status can obtain successful fertilizations. Genetic analysis has also shown that the two female sperm storage areas (the short-term spermatangia - in the buccal area- and the long-term sperm receptacle - beneath the beak) both can contain sperm from multiple males. Of the two storage areas, sperm from the spermatangia (recent matings within a few hours or days) is used more frequently to fertilize eggs than sperm from the receptacle.

References

Kassahn, K. S., S. C. Donnellan, A. J. Fowler, K. C. Hall, M. Adams, and P. W. Shaw. 2003. Molecular and morphological analyses of the cuttlefish Sepia apama indicate a complex population structure. Mar Biol 143: 947-962.

Naud, M. J., P. W. Shaw, R. T. Hanlon, and J. N. Havenhand. 2005. Evidence for biased use of sperm sources in wild female giant cuttlefish (Sepia apama). Proc R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 272: 1047-1051.

Naud, M. J., R. T. Hanlon, K. C. Hall, P. W. Shaw, and J. N. Havenhand. 2004. Behavioural and genetic assessment of reproductive success in a spawning aggregation of the Australian giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama. Anim Behav 67: 1043-1050.

Shaw, P. W. 2003. Polymorphic microsatellite DNA markers for the assessment of genetic diversity and paternity testing in the giant cuttlefish, Sepia apama (Cephalopoda). Conserv Genet 4: 533-535.

Wheaton, L., S. C. Donnellan, M. C. De, M. G. Gardner, and B. M. Gillanders. 2007. Isolation of additional polymorphic tri- and tetranucleotide microsatellite loci for the giant Australian cuttlefish (Sepia apama). Mol Ecol Notes 7: 893-895.

GenBank

Prior to mid 1990s, the spawning aggregation at Whyalla, in northern Spencer Gulf, was fished at sustainable levels for snapper bait. However, in the mid 1990’s, fishers actively targeted cuttlefish, and large numbers of the breeding aggregation were removed from the system. Since the lifecycle of Sepia apama is very short (1-2 yrs), if a cohort of breeders is fished out, the following generation is likely to be severely impacted. To avoid long-term population decline, even local extinction, a renewable moratorium preventing fishing was introduced in 1999. In subsequent years, the cuttlefish numbers increased again, and ecotourism in the area began to thrive, as it does at this writing (2007). The most recent survey, done in 2005, showed a slight decline in abundance since the estimates made in 1998 and 2001. This survey indicates that declines may be the result of multiple factors - not solely over-exploitation from targeted human fishing. More precise molecular data on population genetics will help determine the composition of the hundreds of thousands of cuttlefish that constitute this extremely unique mass spawning aggregation. This is a clear case of ecotourism aiding conservation.

References

The University of Adelaide Cuttlefish Project

Steer, M. A. and K. C. Hall. 2005. Estimated abundance and biomass of the unique spawning aggregation of the giant Australian cuttlefish (Sepia apama) in northern Spencer Gulf, South Australia. Report to Coastal Protection Branch, Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia. South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences), Adelaide, RD 05/0012-1.

Dr. Karina Hall (2002) reared the eggs to juvenile adult stage but growth was very slow compared to that of other cuttlefish such as Sepia officinalis. A great deal more aquaculture effort on a larger scale is needed to assess the convenience of culturing this species in the laboratory or for providing a food source. The largest problem is that cuttlefish are carnivores that strongly prefer live food such as crustaceans and fish.

References

Hall, K. C. 2000. Cuttlefish mysteries. Southern Fisheries 7

Forsythe, J. W., R. H. DeRusha, and R. T. Hanlon. 1994. Growth, reproduction and life span of Sepia officinalis (Cephalopoda: Mollusca) cultured through seven consecutive generations. J. Zool. 233: 175–192.

Since ca. 1999, this species has been an important ecotourism attraction to the city of Whyalla, South Australia. Divers come from around the world to see this amazing underwater spectacle of thousands of active cuttlefish on the spawning aggregation. This spectacle has grown in its popularity and continues to be featured in international television productions around the world. There is even a bus tour that features the giant cuttlefish (see image below). Outside of the protected spawning areas, this cuttlefish supports a small scale bait fishery, and some animals are eaten by humans. Importantly, this highly unique spawning aggregation has become a biological model for mating systems (see many scientific journal papers published on this since 1999).

• Roger Hanlon
• Bronwyn Gillanders
• Paul Shaw
• Marie Jose-Naud
• Karina Hall
• Mark Norman

• Roger Hanlon Laboratory @ Marine Biological Laboratory
• The University of Adelaide Cuttlefish Project
• Paul Shaw Laboratory @ Univeristy of London

• The Cephalopod Page
• CephBase
• Adelaide University
• Sardi Fisheries Publication
• Integrated Taxonomic Information System
• Animal Diversity Web
• Wikipedia
• ABC News Article: So, which rock did you crawl out from under? Deep-sea dates do the business off Whyalla
• Short Story: King of the Cross-Dressers
• The University of Adelaide News Story: Cross-dressing cuttlefish to sex up tourism
• Discover Magazine: Cuttlefish in Love
• The Independent News Article: Cross-dressing cuttlefish is Casanova of the reef
• EurekAlert! Stealth camouflage at night
• Oceanworld Animal Fact Files
• BBC Animal Fact Files
• Unique Australian Animals