Vitis vinifera (Common Grape Vine) is a species of Vitis, native to the Mediterranean region, central Europe, and southwestern Asia, from Morocco and Portugal north to southern Germany and east to northern Iran.^[1]

It is a liana growing to 35 yards tall, with flaky bark. The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed, 5–20 cm long and broad. The fruit is a berry, known as a grape; in the wild species it is 6 mm diameter and ripens dark purple to blackish with a pale wax bloom; in cultivated plants it is usually much larger, up to 3 cm long, and can be green, red, or purple (black). The species typically occurs in humid forests and streamsides.

The wild grape is often classified as V. vinifera subsp. sylvestris (in some classifications considered Vitis sylvestris), with V. vinifera subsp. vinifera restricted to cultivated forms. Domesticated vines have hermaphrodite flowers, but subsp. sylvestris is dioecious (male and female flowers on separate plants) and pollination is required for fruit to develop.

The grape is eaten fresh, processed to make wine, or dried to produce raisins. Cultivars of Vitis vinifera form the basis of the majority of wines produced around the world. All of the familiar wine varieties belong to Vitis vinifera, which is cultivated on every continent except for Antarctica, and in all the major wine regions of the world.

History [edit]

Humans are known to have interacted with the Vitis vinifera in the Neolithic period.

Wild grapes were harvested by foragers and early farmers. For thousands of years, the fruit has been harvested for both medicinal and nutritional value; its history is intimately entwined with the history of wine.^{[citation needed]}

Changes in pip shape (narrower in domesticated forms) and distribution point to domestication occurring about 3500–3000 BC, in southwest Asia, South Caucasus (Armenia and Georgia), or the Western Black Sea shore region (Bulgaria). Cultivation of the domesticated grape spread to other parts of the Old World in pre-historic or early historic times.^{[citation needed]}

The first written accounts of grapes and wine can be found in the Epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient Sumerian text from the third millennium BC. There are also numerous hieroglyphic references from ancient Egypt, according to which wine was reserved exclusively for priests, state functionaries and the pharaoh.^{[citation needed]}

Grape harvest on Etruscan terracotta from the 6th century BC

The ancient Greeks introduced grape growing and wine making to Europe in the Minoan age.^{[dubious – discuss]} Hesiod in his Works and Days gives detailed descriptions of grape harvests and wine making techniques, and there are also many references in Homer. Greek colonists then introduced these practices in their colonies, especially in southern Italy (Magna Grecia), which was even known as Enotria due to its propitious climate.

The Etruscans improved wine making techniques and developed an export trade even beyond the Mediterranean basin.^{[citation needed]}

The ancient Romans further developed the techniques learnt from the Etruscans, as shown by numerous works of literature containing information that is still valid today: De Agri Cultura (around 160 BC) by Cato the Elder, De re rustica by Marcus Terentius Varro, the Georgics by Virgil and De re rustica by Columella.^{[citation needed]}

During the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the long crisis of the Roman Empire generated instability in the countryside which led to a reduction of viticulture in general, which was mainly sustained only close to towns and cities and along coastlines.^{[citation needed]}

Between the 5th and 10th centuries, viticulture was sustained almost exclusively by the different religious orders in monasteries. The Benedictines and others extended the grape growing limit northwards and also planted new vineyards at higher altitudes than was customary before. Apart from ‘ecclesiastical’ viticulture, there also developed, especially in France, a ‘noble’ viticulture, practiced by the aristocracy as a symbol of prestige.^{[citation needed]}

Vineyard in Burgundy

Grape growing was a significant economic activity in the Middle east up to the 7th century, when the expansion of Islam caused it to decline.^{[citation needed]}

Between the Low Middle Ages and the Renaissance, viticulture began to flourish again. Demographic pressure, population concentration in towns and cities, and the increased spending power of artisans and merchants gave rise to increased investment in viticulture, which became economically feasible once more.^{[citation needed]}

Much was written during the Renaissance on grape growing and wine production, favouring a more scientific approach. This literature can be considered the origin of modern ampelography.^{[citation needed]}

Grapes followed European colonies around the world, coming to North America around the 17th century, and to Africa, South America and Australia. In North America it formed hybrids with native species from the Vitis genus; some of these were intentional hybrids created to combat phylloxera, an insect pest which affected the European grapevine to a much greater extent than North American ones and in fact managed to devastate European wine production in a matter of years. Later, North American rootstocks became widely used to graft V. vinifera cultivars so as to withstand the presence of phylloxera.^{[citation needed]}

V. vinifera accounts for the majority of world wine production; all of the most familiar grape varieties used for wine production belong to V. vinifera.^[2]

In Europe, Vitis vinifera is concentrated in the central and southern regions; in Asia, in the western regions such as Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Middle east, and in China; in Africa, along the northern Mediterranean coast and in South Africa; in North America, in California and also other areas like Michigan, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Washington State, British Columbia, Ontario and Québec; in South America in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Peru and Brazil; and in Oceania in Australia and New Zealand.

In the second half of the 20th century there was a shift in attitude in viticulture from traditional techniques to the scientific method based on fields such as microbiology, chemistry and ampelography. This change came about also due to changes in economic and cultural aspects and in the way of life and in the consumption habits of wide sectors of the population starting to demand quality products.^{[citation needed]}

Nature magazine published the genome sequence of V. vinifera.^[3] This work was a collaboration between Italian researchers (Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Biologia Molecolare delle Piante, Istituto di Genomica Applicata) and French researchers (Genoscope e Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique). Vitis vinifera is the fourth angiosperm species whose genome has been completely sequenced. The results of this analysis contribute significantly to understanding the evolution of plants over time and of the genes involved in the aromatic characteristics of wine.

In March 2007, scientists from Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), working in the Cooperative Research Centre for Viticulture, reported that their "research suggests that extremely rare and independent mutations in two genes [VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 of red grapes] produced a single white grapevine that was the parent of almost all of the world's white grape varieties. If only one gene had been mutated, most grapes would still be red and we would not have the more than 3000 white grape cultivars available today."^[4][5]

Uses [edit]

A cultivated Common Grape Vine, Vitis vinifera subsp. vinifera

Use of grapes is known to date back to Neolithic times, following the discovery in 1996 of 7,000 year-old wine storage jars in present-day northern Iran.^[6] Further evidence shows the Mesopotamians and Ancient Egyptians had vine plantations and winemaking skills. Greek philosophers praised the healing powers of grapes both whole and in the form of wine. Vitis vinifera cultivation and winemaking in China began during the Han Dynasty in the 2nd century^[7] with the importation of the species from Ta-Yuan. However, wild vine "mountain grapes" like Vitis thunbergii were being used for wine making before that time.^[8]

Using the sap of grapevines, European folk healers sought to cure skin and eye diseases. Other historical uses include the leaves being used to stop bleeding, pain and inflammation of hemorrhoids. Unripe grapes were used for treating sore throats, and raisins were given as treatments for consumption (tuberculosis), constipation and thirst. Ripe grapes were used for the treatment of cancer, cholera, smallpox, nausea, skin and eye infections as well as kidney and liver diseases.

Seedless grape varieties were developed to appeal to consumers, but researchers are now discovering that many of the healthful properties of grapes may actually come from the seeds themselves, thanks to their enriched phytochemical content.^[9][10]

Grapevine leaves are filled with minced meat (such as lamb or beef), rice and onions in the making of Balkan traditional dolma.

A grapevine is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 2 lipa coin, minted since 1993.

Phenolic chemistry [edit]

V. vinifera contains many phenolic compounds. Anthocyanins can be found in the skin of the berries, hydroxycinnamic acids in the pulp and condensed tannins of the proanthocyanidins type in the seeds. Stilbenoids can be found in the skin and in wood.

Stilbenoids [edit]

Trans-resveratrol is a phytoalexin produced against the growth of fungal pathogens such as Botrytis cinerea^[11] and delta-viniferin is another grapevine phytoalexin produced following fungal infection by Plasmopara viticola.^[12]

• Astringin

Anthocyanins [edit]

Vitis vinifera red cultivars are rich in anthocyanins that impart their colour to the berries (generally in the skin). The 5 most basic anthocyanins found in grape are:

• Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside
• Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside
• Malvidin-3-O-glucoside
• Petunidin-3-O-glucoside
• Peonidin-3-O-glucoside

Cultivars like Graciano^[13][14] may also contain :

acetylated anthocyanins

• Cyanidin-3-(6-acetyl)-glucoside
• Delphinidin-3-(6-acetyl)-glucoside
• Malvidin-3-(6-acetyl)-glucoside
• Petunidin-3-(6-acetyl)-glucoside
• Peonidin-3-(6-acetyl)-glucoside

coumaroylated anthocyanins

• Cyanidin-3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside
• Delphinidin-3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside
• Malvidin-3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside cis
• Malvidin-3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside trans
• Petunidin-3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside
• Peonidin-3-(6-p-coumaroyl)-glucoside

caffeoylated anthocyanins

• Malvidin-3-(6-p-caffeoyl)-glucoside
• Peonidin-3-(6-p-caffeoyl)-glucoside

See also [edit]

• List of grape varieties

References [edit]

Further reading [edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Vitis vinifera

• Daniel Zohary, Maria Hopf (2000). Domestication of plants in the Old World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850356-3. 
• Manzi Luigi, La viticoltura e l'enologia al tempo dei romani, Er. Botta, Roma 1883
• Marescalchi Arturo, Dalmasso Giovanni, Storia della vite e del vino in Italia, 3 voll., Unione Italiana Vini, Milano 1931-33-37

v t e Vitis (grape) species Grape ( Vitis ) species V. acerifolia, V. adenoclada, V. aestivalis, V. amurensis, V. × andersonii, V. arizonica, V. balansana, V. barbata, V. bashanica, V. bellula, V. berlandieri, V. betulifolia, V. biformis, V. blancoi, V. bloodworthiana, V. bourgaeana, V. × bourquina, V. bryoniifolia, V. californica, V. × champinii, V. chunganensis, V. chungii, V. cinerea, V. coignetiae, V. davidii, V. × doaniana, V. erythrophylla, V. fengqinensis, V. ficifolia, V. flexuosa, V. girdiana, V. hancockii, V. heyneana, V. hui, V. jacquemontii, V. jaegeriana, V. jinggangensis, V. Kelungensis, V. labrusca, V. lanceolatifoliosa, V. lincecumii, V. longquanensis, V. luochengensis, V. menghaiensis, V. mengziensis, V. monticola, V. mustangensis, V. nesbittiana, V. × novae-angliae, V. palmata, V. peninsularis, V. piasezkii, V. pilosonerva, V. popenoei, V. pseudoreticulata, V. retordii, V. riparia, V. romanetii, V. rotundifolia, V. rupestris, V. ruyuanensis, V. shenxiensis, V. shuttleworthii, V. silvestrii, V. sinocinerea, V. × slavinii, V. tiliifolia, V. treleasei, V. tsoii, V. vinifera, V. vulpina, V. wenchouensis, V. wilsonae, V. wuhanensis, V. xunyangensis, V. Yeshanensis, V. yunnanensis, V. zhejiang-adstricta

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The Pixie Grape is a new type of Vitis vinifera cultivar. The Pixie is a natural dwarf grapevine that is derived from the periclinal L1/L2 chimera Pinot Meunier. These dwarf grapevines tend to have short internodes and prefer to grow tendrils instead of flowering. They grow from 1 foot to 2 feet in height and produce clusters with a size on average of 10 cm. It is simple to cultivate in greenhouses and grows year round. Its purpose was to create an easy tool with which to conduct grapevine research. The grape was developed by grape rootstock breeder Dr. Peter Cousins of the USDA.

Description

Flowering

The Pixie is a unique grape in that its size is the most important part of its genotype and phenotype. It usually only grows up to about 2 feet in height and does not usually span out in horizontal growth. Internodes on a Pixie are about 25% the length of the Pinot Meunier chimeras length. Flowering is constant on a vine that is still alive and it is not uncommon to view all types of flowering from buds all the way up to ripe fruit just on one vine. Pixies do not grow tendrils however, instead they grow Inflorescenses(group or cluster of flowers).

Fruit

Pixie Grape berries.

Fruit can be obtained all year round from the Pixie. The Pixie's fruit is a black fruited grape with seeds in it. Cluster length usually maxes out at 10 cm in length and the vines that are not regularly thinned tend to grow a lot of fruit and in turn slow growth and reduce the number of flowers produced. Seeds can be obtained and there have been known results of seedlings growing and showing flowers. However due to a reduced sensitivity to gibberellins a Gibberellic Acid treatment is necessary when undergoing seed germination.

Propagation

The Propagation process started with the Pinot Meunier chimera. Unopened flower buds were taken and the anthers were isolated on a medium to create embryogenic callus cultures. Then they were grown into plants where they tissue cultured acclimated to soil and then moved to a greenhouse. Grown under all day artificial light. Once grown pollen was obtained where it was cultured on vines from the vineyard. Seeds were then treated with 1.5% hydrogen peroxide for 24 hrs, 1000 ppm GA3 for one day, after that was three months of moist stratification, then treated with 5000 ppm GA3 for one day before being placed in an incubator at 29.3 °C. These seeds were then treated normally grown and grew into mature plants.

Uses

Potted Pixie Grapes

The Primary use of the Pixie is for research. The intent of scientists when propagating and obtaining this dwarf was to provide a grapevine that was suited to expedite viticulture and other areas of grapevine research. These grapevines are vastly reduced in size so they can easily be grown in a pot in the greenhouse. This allows for year round growth and flowering which in turn provides researchers to study flowering continuously throughout the year. It is also believed that the Pixies may be used to speed up backcrossing or pseudobackcrossing. Teaching and studying grape growth, development and morphology at any times of the year is made possible by being able to obtain grapes of any age at any time of the year no matter the weather outside because it is grown in a protected environment. Interactions with diseases can also be studied more in depth and also berry development. Not having to cope with a 2-3 month window in the summer to obtain your data you can now have access to it year around. With this plant you can study any topic from genetics to pathology to physiology. all year round and obtain a plethora of more information.

References

• Cousins, Peter (2005) NOTICE TO NURSERY OPERATORS AND GRAPE RESEARCHERS OF THE

RELEASE OF PIXIE GRAPE

• Cousins, Peter (2007)Pixie, a dwarf grapevine for teaching and research
• Boss, P. K. and Thomas, M. R. 2002. Association of dwarfism and floral induction with a grape

‘green revolution’ mutation. Nature 416:847-850.

• Ryder, E. J. 1985. Use of early flowering genes to reduce flowering time in backcrossing, with

special application to lettuce breeding. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 110:570-573.

• Skene, K. G. M. and Barlass, M. 1983. Studies on the fragmented shoot apex of grapevine.

Journal of Experimental Botany 35(147):1271-1280.