Oleaceae -- Olive family

    Jonathan W. Wright and H. Michael Rauscher

    Black ash (Fraxinus nigra), a slow-growing tree of  northern swampy woodlands, is the only ash native to  Newfoundland. Other common names, swamp ash, basket ash, brown  ash, hoop ash, and water ash, indicate some of its  characteristics and uses. Many aspects of this tree are unknown  because it has never been commercially important. Black ash wood,  easily split, has been much used for baskets. The seeds are an  important food to game birds, songbirds, and small animals, and  the twigs and leaves provide browse for deer and moose.

This deciduous tree is typically 30-60' tall, sometimes becoming up to 90' tall. It forms a single trunk about ¾-2' across that is often crooked or leaning, while the crown is usually irregular and narrow. On older trees, trunk bark is gray, somewhat rough-textured, flaky, and irregularly fissured. The trunk bark of young trees, in contrast, is light gray, relatively smooth, and often warty. However, various lichens may discolor the bark. Branch bark and twigs are light gray and relatively smooth; twigs are also terete with scattered white lenticels. Young shoots are light to medium green and either glabrous or mostly glabrous (sometimes with patches of short pubescence near the bases of petioles); the terminal buds of these shoots are nearly black, short-conical in shape, and about ¼' long (see Photo). Pairs of opposite compound leaves occur along the twigs and young shoots. These compound leaves are odd-pinnate with 7-11 leaflets; they are about 10-18' long. The petioles and rachises (central stalks) of these leaves are light green or light reddish green and mostly glabrous, although the undersides of the rachises have patches of short brown pubescence near the bases of the leaflets. Individual leaflets are 3-5½' long and 1-2' across; they are lanceolate-oblong or elliptic-oblong in shape and finely serrated along their margins. The lateral leaflets are sessile, while the terminal leaflet has a petiolules (basal stalklet) up to ½' long. The upper leaflet surface is medium to dark green and glabrous, while the lower leaflet surface is pale green and mostly glabrous. However, there are tufts of short brown pubescence along the bases of the lower leaflet surfaces. Leaf venation is pinnate. Black Ash can be either dioecious or monoecious; it less commonly produces perfect flowers. These purplish flowers are produced in compact clusters during the spring before the vernal leaves develop. Male flowers are about 3 mm. (1/8') long, each one consisting of a pair of stamens; they lack calyces and corollas. Female flowers are about 3 mm. (1/8') long, each one consisting of a pistil; they lack corollas and their calyces are absent or insignificant. These flowers are cross-pollinated by the wind. Afterwards, fertile female flowers are replaced by single-seeded samaras that are narrowly oblong in shape, about 1-1½' long, and 6-8 mm. across. These samaras are more tapered at their bases than at their tips; the latter are rounded or slightly notched. Except where their seeds occur, the samaras are flat. The winged membranes of the samaras extend downward past the edges of the seeds to their bases. The samaras are distributed by water or wind. The root system is widely spreading and shallow. This tree spreads by reseeding itself.

General: Olive family (Oleaceae). Native trees growing mostly 12-18 m tall (9-13 m at 50 years; 15-18 m at 100 years), the largest reaching 21 m, with ascending branches, narrow crown, and slender trunk, sometimes bent or leaning; bark gray, becoming corky-ridged and shallowly furrowed, divided into large irregular plates with thin, papery scales that rub off easily. Leaves are deciduous, opposite, 15-40 cm long, pinnately compound with 7-11 oval to lance-shaped leaflets each 8-14 cm long, tapered to a long slender tip, only the end leaflet stalked, with finely toothed margins, dark green above, lighter green beneath with some rusty hairs, turning purple to brown in the fall. Flowers are small, purplish, usually in clusters near the branch tips; some trees produce either male flowers or female flowers, but others have a mixture of the two kinds while others have bisexual flowers (the species polygamo-dioecious). Fruits are winged nutlets (samaras) 2-4.5 cm long and 1cm wide, winged to the base, borne in terminal or axillary clusters, the cluster hanging at maturity. The common name is perhaps in reference to the dark wood; the other common names are clearer in allusion.

Variation within the species: Variants have not generally been recognized within black ash.

Distribution: Black ash is native to the Great Lakes and Acadia regions of North America, in southeastern Canada from Newfoundland to eastern Manitoba, south to Iowa, Illinois, West Virginia, and Virginia. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

(key to state/province abbreviations)


UNITED STATES

CT	DE	IL	IN	IA
ME	MD	MA	MI	MN
NH	NJ	NY	ND	OH
PA	RI	VT	VA	WV
WI	DC

CANADA

MB	NB	NF	NS	ON
PE	PQ

Black ash occurs in many northeastern U.S. states and in several of Canada's eastern provinces.
The northernmost portion of black ash's range extends from
Newfoundland to southeastern Manitoba [118]. Populations in North
Dakota mark the westernmost distribution. Black ash occupies habitat in all of the Great Lake
states and reaches its southern limit in northern Virginia [51,118].The U.S. Geological Survey provides a distributional map of black ash.

The native Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra) is occasional in northern Illinois, uncommon in central Illinois, and rare or absent in the southern section of the state (see Distribution Map). Illinois lies along the southwestern range limit of this mostly boreal species. Habitats include swamps, flatwoods, shady seeps and springs, White Cedar fens, wet depressions in wooded areas, low areas along lakes, and forested bogs. In Illinois, this tree is found in higher quality natural areas. In deciduous woodlands, common associates of this tree include Acer saccharinum (Silver Maple), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green Ash, Red Ash), Quercus bicolor (Swamp White Oak), and the herbaceous Caltha palustris (Swamp Marigold). Black Ash is able to survive top kill from a wildfire by resprouting from the base of its trunk.

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [14]:

None

Black ash ranges from western Newfoundland west to southeastern  Manitoba and eastern North Dakota; south to Iowa; east to  southern Indiana, Ohio, and West Virginia; and north from  northern Virginia to Delaware and New Jersey.

   
  -The native range of black ash.

Fraxinus nigra Marshall:
Canada (North America)
China (Asia)
United States (North America)
South Korea (Asia)
Russian Federation (Asia)
Japan (Asia)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Canada

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Black ash most commonly grows in moist to wet muck or shallow organic soils, especially in swamps, floodplains, terraces, ravines, and on small, poorly drained upland pockets. It also may grow on sands and loams with high water tables. It can tolerate standing water for many weeks, but best growth is on better-drained sites.

It is a shade intolerant pioneer species and normally becomes established in even-aged pockets or stands following some kind of disturbance. Seedlings, saplings, and sprouts tend to dominate the regeneration layer under partial openings in the canopy. It sometimes occurs in pure stands, especially on wetter upland sites, but usually is mixed with eastern white cedar, tamarack, black spruce, balsam fir, American elm, red maple, and silver maple. It is also may be sparsely present in mature forests dominated by larch, birch, and even beech-maple.

Flowering: May-June, with the leaves or just before; fruiting: June-September dispersed: July-October.

More info for the terms: perfect, tree

This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology,
and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available
[20,51,85,101,110,118,121,141].

Black ash is a native tree described by some as the "slenderest broadleaf tree in the
forest" [26]. Black ash is normally a small tree just 40 to
60 feet (12-18 m) tall but can reach 90 feet (27 m) in height [26,59]. Branches do not
appear until high up on the trunk; tall trees may be
without branches for up to 50 feet (15 m) [26,118]. The
narrow trunk is rarely more than 2 feet (0.6 m) in diameter and is often leaning or bent
[59]. Black ash bark is soft with shallow grooves that give a scaly or
flaky appearance [20,51,59,118].
The shallow, spreading black ash root system makes this species prone to
windthrow [39,59]. Fine roots that measure between
0.1 and 0.4 mm in diameter are long and rarely branch [23]. A discussion of black ash mycorrhizal root associations is
available [80], as is an in-depth investigation of the
microscopic appearance of black ash roots that may be useful in identification [23].
The perfect and/or unisexual black ash flowers are described as tightly packed
panicles or racemes and arise from leaf scar axils produced the previous year
[20,51]. The opposite leaves are 10 to 16 inches (25-40 cm) long and pinnately
compound [51,59,110,118]. Leaflets often occur in groups of 9 but may number 7
or 11. They measure 2 to 8 inches (5-20 cm) long by 0.6 to 2.4 inches (1.5-6 cm)
wide [20,51,59,118,121]. The black ash fruit is a sometimes twisted samara most
often containing 1 seed but sometimes containing 2 or 3 seeds [20,51,110]. The fruit measures 1 to
1.5 inches (2.5-4 cm) long and is produced in clusters [59,112,118,121]. Often fruits have a
spicy odor [112].
Life span:
Black ash is a long-lived tree with a relatively rapid growth rate [122]. Heinselman [57] suggests that the typical life span
of black ash is 150 years. However, many black ash trees on the edges of Lake Duparquet in northwestern Quebec
were over 200 years old, and the oldest tree in the area was 319 years old
[127]. In northeastern Minnesota, several black ash trees in relatively pure stands were 250 year old.
At 100 years old, black ash trees can be between 39 and 75 feet (12-23 m).
Height is not well correlated with age when trees are more than 80 to 100 years old [71].

More info for the terms: cover, hardwood, minerotrophic, organic soils, peat, peatland, swamp

Black ash occupies poorly drained swamps, bogs, woodlands, gullies, depressions,
lowlands, foothills, valley flats, and stream and lake shores throughout its
range [20,26,51,104,118]. In Michigan, black ash is found on shady soggy sites, with moderate
nutrient levels, where the weather is cool [19]. Black ash is described in
swamps and wet woodlands of Virginia's Blue Ridge Province [141]. In
the southern boreal region of Quebec, black ash occurs on floodplains, lowest
elevation terraces, and depositional flats with mineral
soils [35]. In Minnesota's Glacial Lake Agassiz region, black ash
populates peatland margins receiving minerotrophic waters [56].

Soils:
Black ash grows on moist to wet, deep, fertile, mineral or organic
soils [26]. Mottles and gleys are typical of soils supporting black
ash (referenced in [112]).
Soils associated with the black ash-American elm-red maple cover type are wet mucks
or shallow peat soils that are frequently
acidic with mid-levels of nutrients [104]. In hardwood and mixed
hardwood vegetation types of Manitoba, black ash dominates the overstory. This vegetation
occupies deep, fine, loamy-clay soils with poor to very poor drainage along
small river floodplains [146].
Excessive moisture is tolerated by black ash [62], and growth is considered
best on sites receiving moving, aerated water with soil pH values between 4.4 and 8.2
[143]. On Quebec's Lake Duparquet floodplain, where black ash
occurs in pure stands, flooding records from 1915 to 1991 indicate that flooding
occurs between April 7 and July 13. Flooding
conditions last an average of 24 days and range between 0 and 65 days [127].
Several areas report more specific soil characteristics for black ash
habitats. In southeastern Wisconsin, the relative importance of black ash
is significantly ( p<0.05) greater on basin sites than floodplain sites. The basin
site soils had significantly lower (p<0.0001) pH and significantly higher
organic matter, calcium, and magnesium levels than floodplain soils [38]. In the Lake
Agassiz Peatlands of Minnesota, black ash grows in
rich swamp forests where the pH is 6 to 6.5, calcium and magnesium
concentrations are high, and the moderately decomposed peat layer can be 1 to 6 feet
(0.3-1.8 m) deep [55].
Northern Lower Michigan's black ash-alder swamps have an organic matter depth of
16±9 (s) inches (40±22
cm). The pH is 7.3±0.5 (4 inches (10 cm) below soil surface) and calcium and magnesium
concentrations are 55.8±7.2 ppm and 20.6±3 ppm, respectively [145].
In alder swamps of Chippewa County, Michigan, where black ash
occurs, soils are described as black mucks. These soils have a 10- to 11-inch-
(26-28 cm) deep organic layer, pH levels between
6.4 and 6.8, and dissolved oxygen levels of 1.9/mg to 2.0/mg. These alder swamps
remained wet until mid-July during the study [92].
Elevation:
Very few areas report black ash elevation tolerances. Kudish
[70] indicated that black ash occurs between 100 and 2,800 feet (31-853 m) in
the Adirondack uplands of New York. In a review, researchers suggest that black
ash occupies sites from sea level to the highest elevations in the northern part
of its range; in the southern portion of black ash's range it is restricted to
elevations above 2,000 feet (610 m) [143].
Weather:
Black ash grows in regions with continental climates. Wright
[143] described black ash habitats as humid, receiving between 20 and 45 inches (510-1,140 mm) of
precipitation annually, having average
low January temperatures of 0 to 32 °F (-18
to 0 °C), reaching an average high temperature of 70
°F (21 °C)
in July, receiving annual snowfall levels of 30 to 100 inches (760-2,540 mm), and
typically having 80 to 180 frost-free days [143].
Some suggest that weather events during the
previous and current year's growing season of black ash are significantly (p<0.05) related to radial growth.
In the Lake Duparquet region of northwestern Quebec, researchers found that
April and May temperatures and August precipitation in the previous year positively
affected radial growth in black ash. However, precipitation in
the previous April, May, June, and October was negatively associated with
radial growth. In the same growing year, April temperature and June
precipitation were positively correlated with radial growth, but July
precipitation was negatively correlated with black ash radial growth [125].
Information was slightly different when flooded and nonflooded
sites were compared. On floodplain sites, growth was not generally affected by
temperature, but precipitation in the previous year's August and June and
the current year's December positively affected radial growth. On nonflooded sites,
radial growth was negatively correlated with the previous year's August temperatures and the
same year's May temperatures. The aforementioned relationships were significant
(p<0.05) [126].

More info for the terms: basal area, bog, climax, codominant, cover, frequency, hardwood, marsh, organic soils, peatland, presence, succession, swamp, tree

Black ash is recognized as a dominant species in the following vegetation
classifications:

IL: Horseshoe Bottom Nature Preserve [75]

MI: northern Lower [145]

MN: Voyageur National Park [72]

Northeastern U.S.: [47,104]

WI: [30]

MB: [146]

NS: Saint Lawrence River Valley [32]

southeastern Canada: [47,104]

American elm (Ulmus americana) is listed as a codominant in many black
ash habitat and community type descriptions. It is important to note that many
American elm populations declined considerably following the
introduction of Dutch elm disease in the early 1930s. Some black ash habitat types and community
descriptions are from dated literature, and the presence of American elm may be
exaggerated in studies that predate population losses to Dutch elm disease.

Black ash-American elm-red maple forest cover type: The black ash-American elm-red maple
(Acer rubrum) forest cover type
occurs throughout the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. Of the 3 major species, black
ash is most restricted to this vegetation type. In the Great Lake states and
the western Canadian Range, balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera ssp.
balsamifera), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), and yellow birch (Betula
alleghaniensis) are common to this cover type. Silver maple (Acer saccharinum), swamp white oak (Quercus
bicolor), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), pin oak (Q. palustris), black tupelo (Nyssa
sylvatica), and eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp.
deltoides) are typical of the black ash-American elm-red maple forests of northern Ohio and Indiana. In
New England and eastern Canada, sweet
birch (B. lenta), paper birch (B. papyrifera), gray birch (B.
populifolia), silver maple, and black spruce (Picea mariana) are
common. The cover type in New York is habitat for white ash (Fraxinus
americana), slippery elm (U. rubra), rock elm (U. thomasii), yellow birch,
black tupelo, sycamore, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis),
and bur oak (Q. macrocarpa) [104]. The black ash-American elm-red
maple cover type in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan is
dominated by black ash. On very poorly drained sites, stands are almost pure black ash,
and black ash is considered a climax species [39].
Northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada:
Black ash is common to many
deciduous, coniferous, and mixed lowland forest types in the eastern U.S. and
Canada.
In the northern Great Lake states, the greatest black ash biomass production is
reported for elm-ash-maple (Ulmus-Fraxinus-Acer spp.) forests.
Black ash biomass yields are 2nd greatest in northern white-cedar
(Thuja occidentalis) forests and 3rd greatest in balsam fir forests [113]. Tamarack (Larix laricina),
balsam fir, northern white-cedar, and red maple are found with black ash in
lowland spruce-fir forests of New England, the Great Lake states, and the boreal
region of Canada [12,42]. Black spruce-speckled alder (Alnus rugosa)
communities are typical of water-logged soils
in eastern Canada, the northern Great Lake states, and Maine [31]. Red spruce (P. rubens)-balsam fir
vegetation types extending
as far south as West Virginia and as far north as maritime provinces of Canada
may include black ash trees [52].
Black ash usually comprises less than 20% of the basal area in sugar maple
(Acer saccharum)-dominated vegetation in the
Great Lake states, New York, New England, Ontario, Quebec, and portions of the
Appalachians. In eastern Canada, black ash
occupies sugar maple-yellow birch habitats [48]. In northern Wisconsin, upper Michigan, southern Ontario, and southern Quebec
black ash is a "less common associate" of the eastern hemlock-yellow birch vegetation type
that grades into black ash-American elm-red maple forests on wetter sites [47].
In wet calcareous mixed woods of the maritime provinces, black ash is dominant,
and eastern white-cedar and red maple are both typical. These forests occur on
poorly drained
organic soils. In the early 1800s, black ash occurred in these
forests with 6.5% frequency, but in 1993 the frequency of ash was less than 1%. Land clearing,
wetland drainage, and tree harvest practices of European settlers are at
least partially responsible for the decline in black ash habitat [78].
Illinois: Black ash is common in Illinois' seep and swamp vegetation where silver maple
and green ash (F. pennsylvanica) are also typical [75].
Michigan: In northern Lower Michigan, seasonally flooded black ash-alder (Alnus
spp.) swamps experience extreme daily and seasonal temperature changes. Black ash also occupies hardwood swamps
where basswood (Tilia americana) and northern white-cedar are typical.
Hardwood swamps are also seasonally flooded but do not occur in frost pockets. The
basal area of black ash in black ash-alder swamps is 7.1±13.1
(s) m²/ha and in hardwood swamps is 6.1±6 m²/ha [145].

In the Indian Bowl area of southwestern Michigan, black ash occurs in tamarack swamps,
thought to be an earlier stage of succession to southern hardwood forest. The Indian Bowl is
frequently flooded, has organic soils high in calcium, and occupies elevations
of 600 to 750 feet (183-229 m) [68]. On the Isle Royale, black ash occurs in 40-year-old
paper birch-aspen (Populus spp.)-white spruce (Picea glauca)
stands that revegetated burned areas after a late July fire in 1963 [54].
Minnesota: In Voyageurs National Park, researchers recognize 2 vegetation
types dominated by black ash. The black ash-elm/trillium
(Trillium ssp.) type occupies moist sites, with deep nutrient-rich
soils. This type is uncommon but is considered climax. The black ash/yellow
marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) habitat
type is a climax type on sites that are better drained
than those occupied by black ash-elm/trillium [72]. Buell and
Bormann [24] recognize a stable basswood-balsam fir-black ash vegetation type
on poorly drained sites of Minnesota's Red Lake Indian Reservation.
In the Lake Agassiz Peatlands of Minnesota, black ash dominates the
overstory of swamp forests that lie on peatland edges and receive mineral-rich
water. Other typical species may include northern
white-cedar, tamarack, black spruce, and speckled alder [55]. In
the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, black ash occurs with low frequencies in balsam fir-paper birch and
red maple-quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)-paper birch communities [88].
New York: Black ash is common in swamps and on floodplains of New
York. In the Adirondacks, black ash occurs in black spruce swamps. Small
northern white-cedar, tamarack, and red maple trees also populate these
sites [10]. Red maple dominates the hardwood swamps
in poorly drained depressions with inorganic soils throughout New York. Black ash,
American elm, swamp white oak, butternut (Juglans cinerea)
and/or bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) may also associate with red
maple hardwood swamps. Green ash, red maple, slippery elm, American hornbeam (Carpinus
caroliniana), and northern white-cedar may associate with black ash in lowland sites along the Hudson River.
Along rivers and lake shores of central and western New York where conditions
are uniformly wet and seasonal water fluctuations are low, silver maple-ash swamps are
common. Silver maple often makes up
70% of the canopy cover, but black ash, green ash, and white ash are also typical [97]. Huenneke [60]
describes black ash in the
eastern hemlock-yellow birch-red maple
wet vegetation type near Cayuga Lake.
Ohio: Black ash is a dominant species in closed-canopy lowland forests
at an average elevation of 860 feet (262 m) in central Ohio; other common
species are American elm, honey-locust (Gleditsia
triacanthos), and pin oak [16]. Braun [20] describes
black ash in northern coniferous forests, eastern hemlock-pine (Pinus
spp.)-northern hardwood forests, and beech-maple forests of Ohio. On poorly drained sites
that are part of northwestern Ohio's Black Swamp, black ash occurs with silver
maple, green ash, American elm, bur oak, and shellbark hickory (Carya laciniosa) [17].
In swamp forests of west-central Ohio's Cedar Bog,
northern white-cedar, red maple, black
ash, and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) dominate the overstory [27].
Pennsylvania: Black ash occurs in the pin oak-sweet gum (Liquidambar
styraciflua) forest cover type
in Gettysburg National Military Park and Eisenhower National Historic Site in
south-central Pennsylvania [144].
Vermont: In eastern hemlock-northern hardwood forests of central Vermont, sugar
maple, beech, white ash, and yellow birch dominate the canopy, but black ash,
basswood, eastern hemlock, and American elm also populate the canopy [18].
Wisconsin: In the black ash-yellow birch-eastern hemlock hardwood swamps
of Wisconsin's northern lowland forests, black ash is a mid-sized tree (45-70 feet
(14-21 m)) with a narrow crown [30]. In northern white-cedar-balsam fir-black ash swamps of northern
Wisconsin, black ash is most important on compacted organic soils that are inundated for much of the growing
season [25]. Winget and others [140] describe black ash, northern
white-cedar, and yellow birch communities on very poorly drained, black muck soils in
northern Wisconsin where even in mid-summer the ground water is just 12 inches
(3 cm) beneath the soil surface. Black ash is occasional in southern Wisconsin's
elm-ash savannah that is restricted to wet meadow sites. Important
canopy species include silver maple, river birch (B. nigra), green ash,
and swamp white oak [21].
Manitoba: Black ash is now the dominant overstory species in hardwood and
mixed hardwood forests of Manitoba that were dominated by American elm in the past.
Boxelder (Acer negundo) often dominates the subcanopy layer. This
community occurs along small stream floodplains on deep, loamy-clay soils with poor to very poor
drainage [146].
In the early 1970s, black ash colonized the Portage la Prairie
grassland area of Manitoba. While this area experiences periodic spring
flooding, it does not support the wet conditions most often associated with the
distribution of black ash. The successful establishment of black ash in prairie
grasslands suggests that high moisture levels are not the only factor limiting
the range of black ash. Other tree species associated with the Portage la
Prairie include bur oak, American elm, green ash, and red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea
ssp. sericea) [102].
Quebec: In the Haut-Saint-Laurent region, the black ash-American elm
habitat type occupies hydric sites with little
slope and a shallow water table. Pooled water is common throughout the year in
this habitat type. Openings in the canopy created by the death of most American
elm trees due to Dutch elm disease now support several understory species including
blackberries (Rubus spp.), common pricklyash (Zanthoxylum americanum),
and broadleaf enchanter's nightshade (Circaea lutetiana ssp.
canadensis) [22]. In southern Quebec, black ash is typical of balsam
fir-northern white-cedar forests on thick wet soils [42].

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [111]:

None

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [40]:

5 Balsam fir

12 Black spruce

13 Black spruce-tamarack

14 Northern pin oak

16 Aspen

17 Pin cherry

18 Paper birch

19 Gray birch-red maple

21 Eastern white pine

23 Eastern hemlock

24 Hemlock-yellow birch

25 Sugar maple-beech-yellow birch

26 Sugar maple-basswood

27 Sugar maple

28 Black cherry-maple

30 Red spruce-yellow birch

31 Red spruce-sugar maple-beech

32 Red spruce

33 Red spruce-balsam fir

34 Red spruce-Fraser fir

35 Paper birch-red spruce-balsam fir

37 Northern white-cedar

38 Tamarack

39 Black ash-American elm-red maple

42 Bur oak

57 Yellow-poplar

58 Yellow-poplar-eastern hemlock

59 Yellow-poplar-white oak-northern red oak

60 Beech-sugar maple

61 River birch-sycamore

62 Silver maple-American elm

63 Cottonwood

64 Sassafras-persimmon

65 Pin oak-sweetgum

87 Sweetgum-yellow-poplar

93 Sugarberry-American elm-green ash

94 Sycamore-sweetgum-American elm

107 White spruce

108 Red maple

203 Balsam poplar

236 Bur oak

252 Paper birch

253 Black spruce-white spruce

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: bog

KUCHLER [69] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K081 Oak savanna

K093 Great Lakes spruce-fir forest

K094 Conifer bog

K096 Northeastern spruce-fir forest

K097 Southeastern spruce-fir forest

K098 Northern floodplain forest

K099 Maple-basswood forest

K100 Oak-hickory forest

K101 Elm-ash forest

K102 Beech-maple forest

K103 Mixed mesophytic forest

K104 Appalachian oak forest

K106 Northern hardwoods

K107 Northern hardwoods-fir forest

K108 Northern hardwoods-spruce forest

K109 Transition between K104 and K106

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [44]:

FRES11 Spruce-fir

FRES15 Oak-hickory

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES18 Maple-beech-birch

FRES19 Aspen-birch

The native Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra) is occasional in northern Illinois, uncommon in central Illinois, and rare or absent in the southern section of the state (see Distribution Map). Illinois lies along the southwestern range limit of this mostly boreal species. Habitats include swamps, flatwoods, shady seeps and springs, White Cedar fens, wet depressions in wooded areas, low areas along lakes, and forested bogs. In Illinois, this tree is found in higher quality natural areas. In deciduous woodlands, common associates of this tree include Acer saccharinum (Silver Maple), Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Green Ash, Red Ash), Quercus bicolor (Swamp White Oak), and the herbaceous Caltha palustris (Swamp Marigold). Black Ash is able to survive top kill from a wildfire by resprouting from the base of its trunk.

Black ash typically grows in bogs, along streams, or in poorly  drained areas that often are seasonally flooded. It is most  common on peat and muck soils but also grows on fine sands  underlain by sandy till or on sands and loams underlain by  lake-washed clayey till (5,9). Although this species can tolerate  semistagnant conditions, for best growth it is important that the  water be moving so the soil will be aerated even though  saturated. Soils suitable for black ash are common in Canada and  the northern States. In Indiana, such soils are most common in  glaciated areas and in the White River Valley (4) but in  Pennsylvania, they most frequently occur south of the glaciated  areas. These soils are most commonly found in the orders  Histosols and Entisols. Black ash is tolerant of a wide range of  pH conditions, from 4.4 to 8.2 (7).

    In the northern part of its range, black ash is found from sea  level to the highest elevations. In the southern part of its  range, however, it grows only above 610 m (2,000 ft) in  elevation.

Black ash grows in a humid climate. Average annual precipitation  ranges from 510 to 1140 mm (20 to 45 in), 380 to 640 mm (15 to 25  in) of which occurs during the warm season. Average January and  July temperatures are from -18° to 0° C (0° to 32°  F) and 18° to 21° C (65° to 70° F),  respectively. Annual snowfall ranges from 76 to 254 cm (30 to 100  in), and the average frost-free season is from 80 to 180 days.

Adaptation: The habitat of the tree is in wet woods and swamps and it occurs in Delaware, West Virginia, Indiana and Iowa, north into the Canadian provinces of Newfoundland, Quebec, and Manitoba.

Planting: Black ash is difficult to grow. Good seed crops in black ash are produced irregularly (1-8 year intervals). Seeds may remain dormant for up to 8 years under natural conditions. Most do not germinate until the second spring after being released. The seed can germinate in hardwood leaf litter or under 0.6-1.8 centimeters of soil. Grass, brush, and hardwood reproduction must be controlled for successful seedling establishment.

Ash fruits are usually gathered in the autumn when their color has faded from green to yellow or brown. Clusters should be collected by hand or with pruners and seed hooks or gathered from the ground. Samaras should be spread in shallow layers for complete drying. Plant the seeds in the fall of the year, one-half inch below the surface of the soil through drilling or broadcasting. No stratification methods appear to work. Some recommend stratifying seeds 60 days at 14/30 C (night/day), then 90 days at 5 C. Otherwise, stored seeds are best sown as soon as possible in a cold frame or an outdoor seedbed. In direct planting of the seed, one must be patient as it may take two winters before the seeds to germinate. During this time, keep the soil moist during the growing season. The seeds usually germinate the second spring--and after germination the seedlings grow rapidly, up to one foot per year.

Shade the beds for a short time after germination. Keep the bed weed-free even though the seeds haven't germinated. Mulching with wood chips, straw, or burlap helps keep down the weeds. Also, the area needs to be deer-proofed, as the deer like to browse the young seedlings. At the end of the second year out-plant the seedlings during the spring, while they still are dormant. The soil should have good drainage and no standing water. The plants need full sunlight. Space the plants 4 to 8 feet apart. After out-planting, no care is needed. Pruning may be required to keep straight stems for certain ethnobotanical purposes.

Older trees of black ash are known to have reached 130 years, but older ones probably exist.

Black ash produces fast-growing sprouts from stumps up to 30 cm in diameter. Sprouts originate from adventitious buds on the sides of the stump and at the root crown. Trees also will root sucker.

Various insects feed on the leaves, wood, plant juices, and other parts of Black Ash and other Fraxinus spp. These insect species include the wood-boring larvae of long-horned beetles, plant bugs (mostly Tropidosteptes spp.), lace bugs, aphids, larvae of gall flies, and caterpillars of many moths (see Insect Table and Moth Table). The seeds of these trees are eaten by such birds as the Wood Duck, Wild Turkey, Cardinal, Pine Grosbeak, and Cedar Waxwing; the Yellow-Bellied Sapsucker drills holes into the trunks of the trees to obtain sap. Mammals feed on Fraxinus spp. in various ways. The Black Bear, Fox Squirrel, Red Squirrel, White-Footed Mouse, and Meadow Vole eat the seeds. In addition, the Beaver feeds on the bark and wood, while the White-Tailed Deer feeds on the twigs and foliage. The Silver-Haired Bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans) and other bats use such trees as summer roosts and nursery colonies, particularly when they are located near openings over meadows, fields, or bodies of water. Black Ash, in particular, provides habitat for such amphibians as tree frogs, wood frogs, and spring peepers in forested wetlands.

Black ash is an important species of the forest cover type Black  Ash-American Elm-Red Maple (Society of American Foresters Type  39). It is a common associate of Northern White-Cedar (Type 37)  and a minor associate of Balsam Fir (Type 5), Black Spruce (Type  12), Hemlock-Yellow Birch (Type 24), and Tamarack (Type 38) (5).

    Shrubs most commonly associated with black ash are speckled alder  (Alnus rugosa), redosier dogwood (Cornus  stolonifera), bog-laurel (Kalmia polifolia), labrador-tea  (Ledum groenlandicum), poison-sumac (Toxicodendron  vernix), willows (Salix spp.), low sweet blueberry (Vaccinum  angustifolium), highbush blueberry (V. corymbosum), small  cranberry (V. oxycoccus), and common winterberry (Ilex  verticillata) (4,5).

A study based on an extensive survey of  defects in Ontario forest trees concluded that black ash is the  most defective of eight deciduous species. The fungi most  frequently associated with trunk rot and butt rot of black ash  were Stereum murrayi and Armillarea mellea, respectively  (1). The oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes u1mi) occasionally  kills reproduction and older trees. Leaf spot (Mycosphaerella  effigurata), anthracnose (Gloeosporium aridum), rust  (Puccinia peridermiospora), and canker (Nectria  galligena) cause damage to black ash similar to that reported  for white ash (Fraxinus americana). The spongy white  (heartwood) rot caused by Polyporus hispidus enters  through wounds and is usually found in the upper tree trunk. It  is occasionally a serious problem; in one Minnesota stand, it  caused degrade of lumber in 5 percent of the trees (14). Deer  browse heavily on young black ash and if poplars are scarce,  beaver will cut down ash between 25 and 51 cm (10 to 20 in) in  stump diameter.

More info for the terms: fire severity, presence, severity, wildfire

Very few studies assess the recovery of black ash on burned sites. This may be
because the wet niches occupied by black ash do not burn often. Following a
mid-May fire near Tower, Minnesota, in 1992, burned sites were compared to nearby
harvested sites. Logged sites were within 9.3 miles (15 km) of the burned sites and matched
burned sites "to the extent possible." The fire burned in quaking
aspen-dominated woodlands, but fire severity was not reported. Black ash made up
13% of the total number of live trees on burned sites sampled in the
summer of 1994. However, black ash was not among the 9 living species
on logged sites. Without predisturbance data, it is not possible to say that
black ash fared better on burned than logged sites [109].

In northern Cook County, Minnesota, an August wildfire burned in a 73-year-old
jack pine (Pinus banksiana)-black spruce forest. Severity of the fire was
not reported, but researchers noted that black ash was present in the
forests before and after the fire. Researchers took no measurements or made no
estimates of black ash's pre- or postfire distribution [6].
In riparian areas northeast of Thunder Bay, Ontario, the presence of black
ash was a significant (p=0.05) indicator of sites adjacent to areas burned in 1999.
The fire did little damage to riparian vegetation but "consumed"
all but a few remnant trees in the upland boreal mixed woods and
conifer-dominated forests. Black ash occurred on just 7% of sampled sites, so
statistical significance may be related to the fire's clearing effect but may be
what the authors describe as "a statistical artifact" [74].

More info for the term: adventitious

Black ash produces sprouts following fire [57]. Sprouting in black
ash is considered "vigorous." Adventitious buds located at
the sides of stumps or root crowns produce the sprouts [39,112].

The literature suggests that black ash is fire sensitive [53] and is
top-killed by even moderate-severity surface fires [57]. However,
fire-scarred black ash trees were reported outside of the Lake Duparquet
floodplain in northwestern
Quebec and likely survived a 1944 fire [124,127].

More info for the term: adventitious

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [120]:

Tree with adventitious bud/root crown/soboliferous species root sucker

Crown residual colonizer (on-site, initial community)

Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources)

More info for the terms: adventitious, cover, fire cycle, fire regime, fuel, hardwood, presettlement fire regime, surface fire, swamp

Fire adaptations:
In reviews, black ash is described as a "vigorous sprouter" following fire, browsing, or cutting.
Sprouts are produced from adventitious buds on the sides of stumps or the
root crowns [39,112]. Black ash may also survive
some fires, as fire scars were noted on trees in the Lake Duparquet area of
Quebec [124,127].

FIRE REGIMES:
There are widely different fire frequencies reported for black ash habitats, and
often times black ash occupies small niches that may or may not burn when most
of the forested area experiences fire. Tubbs [130] considers fires
rare in the northern hardwood forests of the
north-central United States. Wade and others [135] report that the black ash forest cover
type burned in mixed and stand replacing fires at 35- to 200-year frequencies.
However, on poorly-drained sites within northwestern Ohio's Black Swamp,
where black ash occurs, the estimated fire return interval is
greater than 600 years [17].
Bergeron [13] reconstructed the presettlement fire regime for boreal forests along the lakeshores and on islands of Lake Duparquet in northwestern Quebec from
early historical records and fire
scar data. In these boreal forests, the fire cycle has increased since the late 1800s. Ash forests occurred only on
lakeshores and made up 6.7% of the area surveyed. The last fire in ash forests
occurred an estimated 183 years prior to the study [13].
Black ash is typical of boreal forests surrounding the Great Lakes. These
forests experience "short fire return interval crown fires and/or severe surface
FIRE REGIMES." Fires occur at 50- to 100-year intervals and are typically large (1,000-10,000 acres).
Extreme drought conditions are necessary to fuel fires and occur at 20- to 30-year
intervals. Heinselman [57] suggests that the fire return interval increases
in more eastern forests that receive higher levels of precipitation.
From charcoal records collected in the Lake of the Clouds in the Boundary
Waters Canoe Area, where black ash occurs, Swain [123] conservatively
estimates the mean fire return interval for the past 1,000 years at 70 to 80 years
and indicates that changes in the vegetation following fire were short lived (20-30 years).
From historic records including bearing trees, line descriptions, plat
maps, and township summaries from Michigan's Lower Peninsula, the fire cycle in swamp forests where black ash is typical was an estimated 3000 years [136].
The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities
and ecosystems where black ash is important. For further information, see
the FEIS review of the dominant species listed below.

Community or Ecosystem	Dominant Species	Fire Return Interval Range (years)
maple-beech-birch	Acer-Fagus-Betula spp.	>1,000
silver maple-American elm	Acer saccharinum-Ulmus americana	<5 to 200
sugar maple	A. saccharum	>1,000
sugar maple-basswood	A.saccharum-Tilia americana	>1,000
sugarberry-America elm-green ash	Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica	<35 to 200
beech-sugar maple	Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum	>1,000
black ash	Fraxinus nigra	135]
tamarack	Larix laricina	35-200 [94]
yellow-poplar	Liriodendron tulipifera	<35 [135]
Great Lakes spruce-fir	Picea-Abies spp.	35 to >200
northeastern spruce-fir	Picea-Abies spp.	35-200
black spruce	P. mariana	35-200
conifer bog*	P. mariana-Larix laricina	35-200 [37]
eastern white pine	Pinus strobus	35-200
eastern white pine-eastern hemlock	P. strobus-Tsuga canadensis	35-200
eastern white pine-northern red oak-red maple	P. strobus-Quercus rubra-Acer rubrum	35-200
sycamore-sweetgum-American elm	Platanus occidentalis-Liquidambar styraciflua-Ulmus americana	<35 to 200 [135]
eastern cottonwood	Populus deltoides	<35 to 200 [94]
aspen-birch	P. tremuloides-Betula papyrifera	35-200 [37,135]
black cherry-sugar maple	Prunus serotina-Acer saccharum	>1,000
oak-hickory	Quercus-Carya spp.	<35
northeastern oak-pine	Quercus-Pinus spp.	10 to <35 [135]
oak-gum-cypress	Quercus-Nyssa-spp.-Taxodium distichum	35 to >200 [86]
northern pin oak	Quercus ellipsoidalis	<35
bur oak	Q. macrocarpa	<10 [135]
oak savanna	Q. macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium	2-14 [94,135]
eastern hemlock-yellow birch	Tsuga canadensis-Betula alleghaniensis	>200 [135]
elm-ash-cottonwood	Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp.	<35 to 200 [37,135]

*fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review

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More info for the terms: basal area, bog, climax, cover, density, fen, hardwood, organic soils, peat, presence, succession, swamp

Black ash is most typical of late successional communities. On wet or swampy
sites, black ash is often considered a climax species. The black ash-American
elm-balsam fir vegetation type is "definitely
climax" on peat soils in Itasca Park, Minnesota. Here the dominant species
are successfully regenerating and the community appears stable [65]. Beech-maple
swamp forests near Cleveland, Ohio, where black ash is common, are considered
"climatic climax" communities [137]. In northern hardwood forests, the elm-ash
vegetation type may be the climax community on poorly drained sites [130].
Conway [28] describes black ash as an important component of central Minnesota's
oldest bog forests. Pure black ash stands on wet organic soils in north-central
Ontario are also deemed climax [112].

Black ash does not represent a climax species in all cases. In mixed
stands on moderately drained mineral soils black ash is regarded as a
"sub-climax" species [112].
The black ash-American elm-red maple cover type is a "temporary
climax" that typically succeeds to tamarack-black spruce
communities but is subsequently
replaced by northern white cedar [104]. Based on black ash's environmental tolerances, Graham [50] suggests
it cannot be a climax species in eastern hemlock-hardwood forests of Michigan's
Upper Peninsula. Because black ash does not often reproduce in thick
layers of decaying material and is only moderately shade tolerant, it cannot
be a climax species in eastern hemlock-hardwood forests.
Shade relationships:
Reviews of black ash indicate that initially black ash is moderately shade tolerant but with
increasing age, shade tolerance decreases [39,112]. Erdmann
and others [39] suggest that seedlings develop best under 45% to 50% of full
sunlight conditions.

Several researchers rated black ash's shade tolerance. Rudolf [105] gives black
ash a shade tolerance rating of 2.4 on a scale that rates extremely
shade-intolerant aspens a 0.7 and extremely shade-tolerant eastern hemlocks a
10. Kaminski and Jackson [62] rate black ash a 4 on a 10-point scale in which 1
corresponds to a complete intolerance of shading.

Response to disturbances:
Powerful storms that blow down or damage trees are the most common
disturbance in black ash forest habitats. Little is reported on fire,
harvesting, or livestock grazing in these habitats. Black ash typically
increases following events that provide openings in the canopy.
One and two years following the 1998 ice storm in northern New York, researchers
observed black ash damage but did not find obvious changes in
diameter distribution [103]. A July wind
storm in 1983 in Minnesota's Anoka and Isanti counties
caused substantial mortality in both eastern white pine (Pinus strobus)
and northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) forests. In both
forest types, black ash density and basal area initially decreased following the
event, but by the 7th poststorm year, black ash basal area and density exceeded prestorm measurements.
A summary of the changes in black ash density and basal area is
provided below [8]:

Oak forest	1983 b.s.*	1983 a.s.	1990	1993	1997
basal area (m²/ha)	0.8	0.7	1.4	2.0	2.3
density (individuals/ha)	172	148	292	384	376
Pine forest	1983 b.s.	1983 a.s.	1990	1993	1997
basal area (m²/ha)	0.2	0.2	0.6	0.9	1.2
density (individuals/ha)	89	79	155	165	162

*b.s.: before the storm, a.s.: after the storm

Following the widespread mortality of American elm
trees in deciduous swamp communities of southeastern Michigan, researchers
tracked changes in forest composition. Five to ten years after losing the American elm trees, black
ash, red maple, and yellow birch became important overstory and
understory species [9].

The following studies suggest that black ash is a resilient and opportunistic
species regardless of disturbance type.
Researchers indicate that in northern Lower Michigan an increased presence of black ash and red maple is
typical during the
secondary succession of wet, bog sites following cutting or fire [45,46]. On a
1st order stream near Duluth, Minnesota, the selective removal of quaking aspen
trees by American beavers increased the importance of black ash in the area [61].
Researchers visited upland swamp forests of
northeastern Indiana 20 and 53 years after domestic livestock
grazing was discontinued. Livestock grazed with "medium to heavy intensity" until
1930 in the area. Black ash did not appear on grazed sites in the 20th
postgrazing year but was found in the 53rd postgrazing year. By 1984, the density of black ash
on previously grazed sites was 93.9 stems/ha.
In nearby ungrazed oak-hickory forests, black ash density was 89.0 stems/ha in 1931, 19.8 stems/ha in 1951,
and 19.8 stems/ha in 1984. This study suggests that livestock grazing may prohibit
successful black ash establishment [7].
Community change over time:
Several have monitored the species composition changes in black ash communities and many have
speculated about future changes in black ash forests. The succession of flood plains in north-central United States forests
begins with the establishment of shade-intolerant, flood-tolerant pioneers (cottonwoods (Populus
spp.) and willows (Salix spp.)). These species are later replaced by more
shade-tolerant, flood-tolerant species (ashes and elms). The latest successional
communities are dominated by American beeches, basswoods, and white oaks that
tolerate heavy shade and flooding [107].
In the Cedar Bog fen of west-central Ohio, researchers assessed age class
associations, population structure, density-diameter curves, and life history
information that suggested black ash and red maple would increase but remain
subdominant to northern white-cedar for the "foreseeable future" [27].
In a 30-year study of Connecticut's mixed hardwood forests, muck soil sites showed
an increased abundance of black ash over time. Trees were aged between 25 and 40
years old when monitoring began. In 1927, there were 6 black ash trees/acre, and in 1957 there were 12 trees/acre [89].
Forty years of monitoring in the Indian Bowl area of Berrien
County, Michigan, revealed similar increases in black ash. The percentage of
total stems belonging to black ash more than doubled over the course of the
study. The tamarack swamps that black ash occupied in Indian Bowl had organic soils high in calcium,
occupied elevations between 600 and 750 feet (183-229 m),
and were relatively free of human-caused disturbances.
The increases in black ash at 10-year intervals are provided below. Increases in
black ash occurred with general increases in the total number of stems per acre,
suggesting black ash increases rather than other species decreases explains
black ash's increased percentage of total stems [68,117].

Year	1927	1937	1957	1967
% total stems	2	2.2	2.9	5.7
% total basal area	0.1	0.6	4.9	8
Total stems/acre	312	288	438	438

In northern Lower Michigan, researchers monitored changes during 40 years of
secondary succession on 2 lowland sites. Severe disturbances (logging and
burning) occurred in the area from 1870 to the early 1920s. At the time of plot
establishment, the oldest trees were 10 to 15 years old. One site was a mixed
conifer swamp on poorly drained organic soils dominated by northern white-cedar, black
spruce, and balsam fir. The other site occurred on a flat, moist sandy plain
dominated by quaking aspen. Here the water table varied from a few inches above
the soil surface to 30 inches (76 cm) below. The basal area of black ash in
mixed conifer-dominated sites in 1981 was lower than in 1938. In the quaking
aspen-dominated forests, the basal area of black ash increased substantially
from 1938 to 1981. The comparisons between different sites and communities makes
assigning the changes in black ash basal area to any single site or community
characteristic difficult. The results of this study are summarized below [106]:

Year	1938	1945	1951	1955	1981
Site	mixed conifer-dominated
Black ash basal area (cm²)	80	149	154	148	57
Site	quaking aspen-dominated
Black ash basal area (cm²)	6	26	94	118	688

In an old-growth, central hardwood forest of east-central Indiana, changes
in vegetation composition were compared over a span of 60 undisturbed years. Bur
oak
trees in the forest were 201 to 306 years old. Black ash density (number of
stems/plot) decreased from 1926 to 1986, a change that researchers attributed to increased shading in
the forests [4].

More info for the terms: adventitious, bisexual, hypocotyl, litter, natural, peat, perfect, root crown, top-kill, tree, xeric

Black ash is capable of sexual and asexual reproduction. Asexual regeneration
typically follows top-kill and is through vegetative stump or root crown sprouting [39,77,112].

Breeding system:
Black ash can produce perfect or separate male and female flowers [20,51].
Hosie [59] suggests that male, female, and bisexual flowers can occur on a single tree.
In the northeastern U.S., the smallest tree to flower was 3 inches
(8 cm) in diameter [142].
Pollination:
Ashes are wind pollinated [142].
Seed production:
Large viable seed crops are produced intermittently by black ash. The ability to produce seed
occurs when trees are 30 to 40 years old [57]. In a review, Sims
and others [112] report that good crops of seed are produced at 1- to 8-year intervals.
Similarly, Sutherland and others [122] suggest 5 or more years pass between
good black ash seed production. For 25 years, researchers monitored black ash
seed production in northeastern Wisconsin. They found that seed production was
61% to 100% of full crop for 28%
of this time but was less than 36% of full crop for 68% of the time [49].
In 2 years of seed collection in southeastern Michigan, researchers collected
a total of 98,032 seeds from 42 different species. During the course of this study black ash failed to produce
any "potentially viable
seed" [83].
Seed dispersal:
The timing of fruit shed and weather conditions can affect the dispersal distances for black
ash seed. Sutherland and others [122] report that winds can transport seeds
328 feet (100 m) or more away from the parent tree. Curtis [30] called
winter-shed fruits "ice boats" and suggested that long-distance dispersal is
likely under these conditions. No actual distances were reported.

Seed banking:
Several researchers report that black ash seeds can remain viable for up to 8 years under natural
conditions [112,122].

Germination:
The germination of black ash seed is a multistage process of stratification and scarification
that often takes 2 to 3 years under
natural conditions [30,112]. The embryo
is immature when seeds are shed and requires warmth and moisture to fully develop.
When fully ripe, the embryo is still dormant and requires a cold, moist period to break
dormancy. Seeds germinate best on peat or mineral soils with high organic
content [30] and can germinate in litter or when covered by 0.5 to 0.75
inch (1-2 cm) of soil [39].

Steinbauer [116] conducted in-depth studies of black ash seed germination.
He found that at the time of seed shed the embryo is differentiated into the hypocotyl,
epicotyl, and cotyledons, but the embryo is just 1/2 to 2/3rd the size of the
seed. Embryos attain maximum size (0.5 inch (14 mm))
after 2 to 3 months at 68 °F (20 °C).
Germination does not immediately follow and is likely delayed by mechanical restrictions of the endosperm, suberized
layer, and/or seed coat. The digestion process necessary for germination is most efficient
after 2 to 3 months at 41 °F (5 °C). Higher temperatures (68-86 °F (20-30 °C))
allow the embryo to break mechanical barriers and
germination begins [116]. In the laboratory, maximum germination (87%) of black ash seed
occurred after seeds were ripened in peat moss for 18 weeks at 70 °F (21 °C) and then
exposed to 39 °F (4 °C) temperatures for 24 weeks [133,134].

Seedling establishment/growth:
Black ash seedlings establish under canopy shade on a variety of soils [122]. In
a review, Sims and others [112] report that seedling growth is rapid. Seedlings
may reach 2 inches (5 cm) in the first 2 weeks of growth. In 1 year, seedlings are
often 6 inches (15 cm) tall. Seedling survival is reportedly best at 45% to 50%
full sun conditions [112]. While seedlings can establish under a canopy, they
will eventually need canopy release for long-term survival [122]. Curtis [30]
reports that high densities of black
ash seedlings are rare [30]. Others suggest that grass and brush growth on the site can disrupt
successful establishment [39].
Bell [11] monitored the growth and mortality rates for an average of 6 black ash trees along Hickory Creek in
Illinois. Over the 18 years of the study, the average mean annual growth rate was 3.8±3
(s) mm/year and mortality was 3%±2.2%/year.
Researchers followed the establishment and
survival of black ash, green ash, and white ash seedlings in open meadows
and in upland and lowland young, successional, and closed-canopy forests of central Ohio.
Ashes made up
69.9% of the 2,553 seedlings monitored. Significantly more (p≤0.05) ash seedlings
emerged on lowland sites. Average ash seedling production
was 241±21(s x) new seedlings/100 m²/year
from 1984 to 1993. In 1988 and 1990, seedling production
peaked at approximately 800 to 1,000 new seedlings/100 m². Production in 1988 and 1990 was significantly
greater (p≤0.05) than for any other year. Peak production was not correlated
with any observed annual or seasonal climate
events, and the authors suggest that production peaks related to black ash's
masting behavior. The average life span of ash seedlings was 5
to 7 months. The seedling
population produced in June of 1990 was 916. By October of the same year, 66.7% were
dead; by May of 1991, 96.6% were dead. Survivorship was likely
affected by white-tailed deer browsing; deer occurred in densities of 0.6 to 0.7
animal/ha in the area [16].
Potential changes in growth:
Several factors may affect the growth rate and/or growth form of black ash. In open
canopy conditions, black ash exhibits a broader canopy than trees grown in
closed-canopy forests [26]. The growth rate of black ash
is slower on sites with organic peat and muck soils. Trees are just 30 to 45 feet
(9-14 m) after 50 years of growth and only 50 to 60 feet (15-18 m) in 100 years [39]. Immature plants severely
browsed by white-tailed deer may
develop a shrubby growth form. A single year free of browsing pressure, however, is enough to
allow production of a leader branch [30].
Asexual regeneration:
Vegetative reproduction is common following damage or top-kill [30]. In reviews,
black ash is described as a "vigorous sprouter"
following fire, browsing, or cutting. Sprouts are produced from adventitious buds
located on the sides of stumps or root crowns [39,112]. Black ash produces 7 to 17 stem sprouts when cut [77].
Asexual vs. sexual regeneration:
Along Lake Duparquet in northwestern Quebec,
researchers studied numerous characteristics of black ash's sexually and
asexually produced plants. In
this region, sprouts have higher and more constant mortality rates than
seedlings, and sexually reproduced stems reach older ages and produce larger diameters than
sprouts. Seedlings more often than sprouts reach
canopy height. However, on exposed flooded sites, new (1st-year and older)
seedlings experience higher mortality than sprouts, and vegetative reproduction
predominates. Likely, the more developed sprout root system allows for a more
rapid growth rate and an increased tolerance to flooding. Successful black ash seedling establishment
requires periods free of prolonged, intensive
flooding [127], but xeric conditions are not tolerated either [128].

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More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [95] LIFE FORM:

Phanerophyte

More info for the term: tree

Tree

The fire effects information on black ash is limited. The
use of fire or protection from fire for the management of black ash requires more information
than is available at this time. Any information on pre- and postfire
vegetation characteristics for black ash would be valuable to land managers.

Black ash is classed as  intolerant of shade (8).

Black ash has a shallow and fibrous root  system (8), particularly well adapted to growth under conditions  of high soil moisture.

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Spring flowers and fall fruits are typical for black ash.

State, region	Flowering dates	Fruiting dates
Illinois	May-June [85]
New York (Adirondack uplands)	Flowers just before leaf out ~May 25 [70]
Virginia and West Virginia	April-May (in Virginia and west Virginia) [,141]
Wisconsin	May [30]	September [30]
Great Plains	May [51,118]
North-central Plains		August [118]
Ontario (north-central)	May-June [112]	August-September, fruit dispersed October-early spring [112]

Flowering occurs before black ash trees produce leaves [110]. In northeastern
Minnesota, Ahlgren [1] monitored the seasonal development of black ash for 5 years.
Observations revealed that flowering began after at least 5 days with
minimum temperatures above freezing and spring maximum temperatures exceeding 70 °F
(21 °C). First flowers appeared as early as April 27 or as
late as May 25. First leaves emerged as early as May 20 or as late as June 8. Leaves
changed colors as early as
August 29 or as late as September 13. Leaves fell as
early as September 19 and as late as October 3 [1].

Because of dormancy, black ash seed  does not normally germinate under natural conditions until the  second year. In the nursery, ash seeds may be planted in the fall  soon after they are collected and then mulched with burlap or  straw until spring, and covered with 6 to 20 mm (0.25 to 0.75 in)  of soil. Standard practice is to broadcast or drill seeds to  achieve a nursery bed density of about 110 to 160 seedlings per  square meter (10 to 15 ft). Germination is epigeal and usually  occurs during the second year. Seedlings usually are outplanted  as 1-0 stock, sometimes 2-0 in North America (12). Black ash  seeds may remain viable for 8 years or more under natural  conditions.

    In natural stands, black ash seedlings commonly grow more slowly  than do those of associated species such as American elm (Ulmus  americana) and red maple (Acer rubrum). Young black  ash sprout readily from stumps.

Seeds are dispersed  from July to October. A 25-year seed crop survey of 19 tree  species in northeastern Wisconsin showed that black ash produced  good seed crops 28 percent of the years, medium seed crops 4  percent of the years, and poor seed crops 68 percent of the  years. Of the 19 northern forest tree species investigated, black  ash registered the longest period of poor seed crop, 7 years  (7,12).

    Among the ashes, black ash is about average in seed production.  Seeds average between 27.7 and 36.3 kg/45.4 kg of fruit (61 and  80 lb 100/lb). When cleaned, there are 13,500 to 20,900 seeds per  kilogram (6,100 to 9,500 lb) or an average of 17,900 kg (8,100  lb) (12).

    Black ash seeds show dormancy because they have immature embryos,  respiratory enzymes in the endosperm, and impermeable seedcoats.  Dormancy can be overcome with moist stratification in sand for 2  to 3 months at room temperatures (20° C or 68° F)  followed by stratification for 3 months at a temperature slightly  above freezing (5° C or 41° F). The embryos mature and  seedcoats become permeable during warm stratification and  inhibitors disappear during cold stratification (12,13).

Black ash is polygamous; its  flowers are small and inconspicuous. They appear in May or June  at about the same time as, or just before, the leaves. The fruit  is an elongated, winged, single-seeded samara that is borne in  terminal or axillary clusters. It ripens from June to September  (12).

Black ash is a small tree. The largest  one on record is growing in Bath, OH, and is 26.5 in (87 ft) tall  and 148 cm (58.3 in) in d.b.h., with a crown spread of 18.3 in  (60 ft) (10). More commonly, the largest trees reach a height of  18 to 21 in (60 to 70 ft) and a diameter of 30 to 61 cm (12 to 24  in). In many forests, the largest trees are only 20 to 25 cm (8  to 10 in) in d.b.h.

    As would be expected of a species that grows in areas with a high  water table, black ash has a relatively slow growth rate. Site  index at base age 50 years ranges from 15 to 24 in (50 to 80 ft)  in northern Wisconsin and Michigan (2). Forest survey data from  20 counties in northern Minnesota indicate that black ash is only  about 80 percent as tall at age 50 as is balsam fir (Abies  balsamea) on the same site (3). In many Michigan bogs, black  ash-red maple stands grow only 9 to 11 in (30 to 35 ft) tall  before they are replaced by northern white-cedar (Thuja  occidentalis) (6).

    In a Minnesota study (11), freshly fallen black ash leaves were  found to contain larger amounts of calcium, magnesium, nitrogen,  and ash than other hardwoods. The phosphorus content of the  foliage was similar to that of most other hardwoods.

There are no known races or hybrids of black ash.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1

Black ash is listed as an endangered species in North Dakota. It is
considered "imperiled because of rarity or because of other factors making it
very vulnerable to extirpation from the state." This status typically
describes species with "6 to 20 occurrences or few (1,000-3,000) remaining
individuals" [87]. In Delaware, black ash is
a "conservation concern." There are 6 to 20 "known occurrences or
populations." Black ash may be susceptible to extinction from the state [82].

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Several techniques necessary to effectively manage black ash stands are
discussed in the literature. For black ash in the Great Lake states, several
silvicultural methods such as thinning, regeneration, and cultivation are
reviewed [39,77]. There are many regression equations using d.b.h.
to estimate the above ground biomass of ashes in Michigan [90,93], Quebec
[91], and the Upper Great Lakes
region [129].

Black ash trees are susceptible to injury by several agents. See the following references for more
information on fungal agents [98,119], insect pests [112,139], and diseases [43].
Solomon and others [114] provide a review of many diseases,
insects, and other agents that damage ash trees.

Seeds and plants of selected Fraxinus cultivars are available from many nurseries. It is best to plant species from your local area, adapted to the specific site conditions where the plants are to be grown.

Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone book under ”United States Government.” The Natural Resources Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”

Forests managed to yield black ash should be selectively cut. Clearcutting often results in inadequate natural regeneration or loss of advanced regeneration because of rising water tables or increased competition with grass and brush.

As with many other tree species on wet sites, individuals of black ash are shallowly rooted and subject to windthrow.

Black ash is easily damaged by fire and can be killed or top-killed by severe fire but it probably sprouts from the root crown following such damage. Burned sites also may be re-colonized through the wind-dispersed seed.

Several black ash hybrids and cultivars are used in ornamental landscapes [33].
Information on improving the growth of ornamental black ashes is
available [73]. Williams and Hanks [138] discuss many aspects
of growing black ash commercially; information is included on seed collection,
seed storage, germination, planting, protecting, and lifting.

Black ash wood
splits into slats easily, making it ideal for basketry [59]. Native people of northeastern Canada and the United
States historically and currently use black ash in basket making. Black ash basketry is
common in Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and New York. The Passamaquoddy,
Penobscot, Maliseet, Micmac, and Mohawk people utilize black ash in their baskets [108].

Wood Products:
The wood from black ash trees is not particularly strong and is used mainly for indoor
furnishings. Black ash wood is moderately
heavy; 1 air-dried cubic foot weighs 34 pounds [26]. The grain is coarse, sapwood is almost
white, and heartwood is dark in older trees [26,59]. Wood is used in making cabinets, veneer, paneling, short tool handles,
baskets, and indoor furniture [26,59,131].
Treated black ash wood is also used for posts. A study found, however, that
oil-treated posts outlast untreated posts. Trees cut in the spring were peeled, air dried
to 15% to 25% moisture content, and treated with 5% pentachlorophenol oil solutions.
Posts soaked in oil for 24 hours lasted 33 years, while untreated posts lasted just 4.5 years [64].

More info for the terms: cover, fen, fresh, hardwood, litter, natural, presence, swamp, tree

While not recognized as an important food source for wildlife, black
ash is utilized in small quantities by a variety of animals. In a review, black
ash is recognized as an important seed source for game birds, songbirds, and
small animals, and is utilized as browse by white-tailed deer and moose [143].

Native ungulates:
Both moose and white-tailed deer utilize black ash. Utilization by moose increased with
their population increases. During the dormant season (mid-September through mid-May),
black ash is low preference browse for moose in the
Lake Superior region [5]. On Isle Royale in Michigan, black ash made up
0.4% of available browse and made up 0.1% of moose winter diets [3]. After compiling
findings from 13 browse surveys done in northern
Ontario, Cumming [29] found that black ash comprised less than 1% of moose
diets.
On Isle Royale in the sugar maple-yellow birch vegetation type, black ash
comprised 2.4% of moose summer diets in 1946. The average degree of black ash
browsing on the main island was 13% in 1945, 15% in
1948, 0 in 1950, 22% in 1961, 5% in 1965, and 9% in 1970. Decreased browsing
from 1948 to 1950 corresponded to substantial moose die-off;
moose populations were increasing from 1950 to 1961 [67].
Utilization of black ash by white-tailed deer likely depends on
its availability. In reviews, Sims and others [112] consider black
ash important white-tailed deer browse, and Erdmann and others [39] indicate
that black ash seedlings and sprouts are readily browsed by white-tailed deer in the Great
Lake states. However, in Cook County,
Minnesota, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, black ash is not widely distributed in
white-tailed deer wintering areas and is not important browse [2].
Studies indicate that black ash tolerates heavy browsing. Following heavy clipping (complete utilization of
the season's growth) of stems in Cook County, Minnesota, black ash
increased output by 19% by the time researchers clipped plants the next year. Output increased by over 300% in
successive clippings. Both the number of twigs and the average length of twigs increased with
clipping [2]. Erdmann and others [39] in a review suggest that black
ash trees can withstand even heavy winter browsing.
Other large mammals:
Black ash habitats are used seasonally by both American black bears and bobcats.
The presence of black ash may indicate valuable feeding sites for
American black bears in the Great Lakes region. The lowland grasses and
herbaceous vegetation associated with black ash swamps are a primary early spring
(April-May) food [99,100]. Lovallo and Anderson [79]
found that female bobcats selected lowland deciduous forests as habitat in
northwestern Wisconsin in the summer and the winter. Black ash and alder (Alnus
spp.) dominated the lowland forests.
Small mammals:
American beavers, rabbits, and
other small mammals occasionally feed on black ash bark and stems. In Michigan's Upper
Peninsula, American beavers infrequently utilized black ash as a winter food source;
however, in North Dakota the small twigs and bark of black ash are preferred
by American beaver [76]. On Mantioulin Island, Ontario, snowshoe hare use of
black ash was low in the winter season. Five percent of available stems were
browsed [34]. In a guide to growing black ash in the Maritime Provinces, authors
suggest the use of poison-grain mouse-bait stations in plantations to discourage mice
from girdling stems [77].
Birds:
Although few studies highlight
specific links between birds and black ash, it is likely that the wetland
habitats occupied by black ash are attractive to many bird species. It is also
likely that birds feed on black ash seeds. Black ash was one of many species
investigated in a caloric content study of seeds eaten by birds [66]. In Aitkin County, north-central
Minnesota, 2 of 14 located great gray owl nests were found in black ash trees [115].
Black ash habitats are important ruffed grouse roosting and brooding areas. Ruffed grouse used
black ash-dominated swamp
hardwoods as winter habitat. Swamp hardwoods made up 19% of the winter habitat use (number of
plots with roosts/total number of plots of this cover type), and an average of 1.3 roosts/plot
were found in black ash-dominated swamps. In the hot summer months, swamps are important brood habitat
[36].
Amphibians:
Researchers found several frog species in balsam fir-black ash forests of Itasca State Park, Minnesota.
Researchers found a total of 855 frogs throughout the 5 years of field studies
conducted in mid-August. Of the 855 frogs, 270 occurred in the balsam fir-black
ash habitat type. Microclimates, vegetation type and coverage, as well as
potential escape areas likely affected habitat choice. The frog species found in
the balsam fir-black ash habitat type are shown below [81]:

Species	Number found in balsam fir-black ash habitat type	Total number found	% of total found in balsam fir-black ash habitat type
wood frog	185	372	49.7
spring peeper	29	61	47.5
swamp tree frog	44	75	58.7
tree frog	6	11	54.5
American toad	1	1	100

Palatability/nutritional value:
Nutritional contents are reported for black ash seed, wood, and litter.
Black ash seed collected near Champaign, Illinois, from November through March of
1954 to 1959 contained an average of 5,625 gram-calories/gram [66].
Researchers in Wisconsin found that the in-vitro dry matter digestibility of
black ash wood was 17% and bark was 45%.
Free sugars and sugars after hydrolysis made up 6.5% and 10%, respectively, of
the carbohydrates in black ash extract [84]. Fresh black ash litter collected over a
2-year period from a marginal fen in Minnesota's Cedar Creek Natural History Area contained
4,376 g cal/g dry weight and 4,714 g cal/g ash-free
weight. The dominant trees
in the study area were 35 to 45 years old. The nutrient content of the fresh
black ash litter
is summarized below [96]:

Ash (%)*	Calcium (%)	Magnesium (%)	Nitrogen (%)	Phosphorus (%)
7.16	2.69	0.56	2.14	0.14

*oven-dry weight

In a review, Blinn and Buckner [15] report the following foliar nutrient
levels for black ash:

Nitrogen* (%)	Phosphorus (%)	Potassium (%)	Calcium (%)	Magnesium (%)
2.11	0.17	2.7	2.01	0.47

*oven-dry weight

Aluminum (ppm)	Boron (ppm)	Copper (ppm)	Iron (ppm)	Manganese (ppm)	Molybdenum (ppm)	Zinc (ppm)
216	29	20	288	96	2.7	25

Cover value: Black ash-red maple
hardwood swamps are important winter range for white-tailed deer in northern
Wisconsin and typically support high deer numbers [25].
A study of bobcat food availability suggests that lowland deciduous habitats dominated
by black ash of northwestern Wisconsin are home to several rodent species. In
lowland deciduous forests, 3.9 voles, 0.87 mice, 0.87 shrews, and 0.87 chipmunk were
captured per 100 trap nights [79].

No
information is available on this topic.

The preference is full or partial sun, wet conditions, and soil containing loam, sandy loam, clay-loam, or peaty material. This tree has a wide pH tolerance. The seeds can take 2-3 years to germinate. Black Ash usually lives up to 150 years, although some trees may live up to 250 years. Flooded conditions can be tolerated for up to 2 months during the growing season.

The wood of black ash is strongly ring-porous, making it ideal for basketry splint, barrel hoops, snowshoe frames, canoe ribs, and material for woven chair seats. Each growth ring has a distinct porous area (spring growth) and a dense area (summer growth), the latter usable as splint, which can be permanently bent. It separates into thin sheets when soaked and pounded. The wood is softer, lighter weight, and easier to work than white ash. It is darker colored with more grain and used largely for furniture and interior finish.

Ethnobotanic: Black ash is an important tree for the making of lacrosse sticks used by the Mohawk and other tribes of the Eastern United States. Trunks at least 6 to 8 inches across are harvested for their bark. The Abnaki, Ojibwa, Malecite, Meskwaki, and other cultural groups use the bark to make baskets. The inner bark of the black ash was used to make a bark barrel by the Iroquois which was used for storing dried vegetables, fruits, and seeds, as well as clothing. The tree traditionally was a valuable medicine to many tribes in Eastern North America. The Iroquois steeped the bark of the tree together with the roots and bark of other plants to treat rheumatism. The Menomini used the inner bark of the trunk as a valuable medicine and as a seasoner for other medicines. The Meskwaki made a tea from a mixture of the wood with the root of Smilacina racemosa to loosen the bowels. They also used the inner bark of the trunk as a remedy for any internal ailments. Non-Indian settlers used a bark infusion as a bitter tonic.

Black ash is not an outstanding ornamental, but it is cold tolerant, good for wet soils, and relatively tolerant of atmospheric pollution. Cultivars and hybrids have been developed, emphasizing upright growth, oval crown form, growth vigor, bright yellow fall foliage, persistence of fall foliage, and seedlessness.

Wildlife: The winged seeds are eaten by a number of birds including wood ducks, quail, bobwhite, purple finches, and pine grosbeaks. Mammals also eat the seeds including beaver, porcupines, and white-footed mice. Rodents and sometimes wild turkeys shuck off the wing and eat only the seed inside. White-tailed deer and moose feed on the twigs and foliage.