Cuttlefish swim using the fin that passes around the body. They can also rapidly expel water and move quickly by 'jet-propulsion' (4). Like all cephalopods, the common cuttlefish is an active predator, feeding on molluscs, young fish, and crabs. Other species of cuttlefish may also be taken, and cannibalism has been reported (2). When threatened, this species releases ink (known as sepia) into the water to produce a protective 'cloud' which confuses predators and allows the cuttlefish to escape (4). During spring and summer, males and females migrate to warmer water in order to spawn (2). Males often engage in spectacular displays to attract a female, in which bands of colour pass rapidly along the body; fighting over females is common (4). The eggs are attached to objects on the sea floor such as shells and seaweeds (2); after spawning, both the males and females die (4). Young cuttlefish reach maturity at 14-18 months of age, and the average life span is 1-2 years (2).

 Body relatively broad and somewhat flattened so as to be oval in cross section. Paired fins run from behind the head to the tip of the body, but do not join. Arms are short and possess 4 rows of suckers while tentacular clubs possess 5-6 suckers in transverse rows. Dorsal margin of mantle with blunt lobe. Individuals are capable of very rapid colour change, especially when threatened; the animal may also take the colour or patterning of its background. Mantle reaching lengths up to 45 cm and weight up to 4 kg.

• Males larger than females, and slightly more frequent (Dunn, 1999).
  
• Sepia elegans is smaller, has 2 rows of suckers on arms and has an acute lobe on its dorsal mantle margin.

The cephalopods (meaning 'head-footed'), a group of molluscs containing the octopuses, squid and cuttlefish, are probably the most intelligent of all invertebrates. They have well-developed heads, with large eyes and mouths that feature beak-like jaws (3). The body of the common cuttlefish is flattened and broad, and is therefore oval in cross-section (2). A fin runs around the body from behind the head (2). Encircling the mouth there are eight 'arms' with suckers, which are used to manipulate prey, there are also two tentacles with flattened paddle-like tips, which can be rapidly extended and are used to catch prey (4). This species has excellent camouflage; it is able to change its colour to match its surroundings (2). Colour is therefore extremely variable, but is typically blackish-brown, mottled or striped, usually with paler underparts (2). Cuttlefish have an internal shell known as a cuttlebone, which is filled with gas and aids buoyancy; these shells are found washed ashore, and are often given to pet birds as a source of calcium and other minerals.

Sepia officinalis is generally found in the eastern North Atlantic, throughout the English Channel, and south into the Mediterranean Sea so it is often referred to as the "European Cuttlefish". However, populations have also been recorded along the west coast of Africa, and as far south as South Africa.

Biogeographic Regions: atlantic ocean (Native ); mediterranean sea (Native )

Belgian Coast, Belgian Continental Shelf, Belgian Exclusive Economic Zone, British Isles, Calais, De Haan, Dutch Exclusive Economic Zone, East Atlantic, European waters (ERMS scope), FAO fishing area 27, FAO fishing area 34, FAO fishing area 37, Greek Exclusive Economic Zone, Koksijde, Mediterranean Sea, Nice, North East Atlantic, Oostduinkerke, Oostende, Oosterschelde, South West Indian Ocean, United Kingdom Exclusive Economic Zone, Wimereux, Zeebrugge

In Britain, this cuttlefish is found around southern and western coasts. Elsewhere, the species is found in the eastern Atlantic from the Baltic Sea to South Africa, and also in the Mediterranean (2).

Sepia officinalis measures up to 45 cm in mantle length, ranging from 30 cm in subtropic areas to 49 cm in temperate areas. Weights are between 2 kg (subtropic areas) and 4 kg (temperate areas). The largest recorded individual reached a mantle length of 60 cm. European cuttlefish have large eyes and a mouth with beak like jaws located at the base of the mantle. The mantle houses reproductive and digestive organs, as well an internal shell called the cuttlebone. The cuttlebone shape is oblong with a rounded posterior end and an anterior end that tapers to a point.

The body of S. officianalis is broad and dorso-ventrally flattened, having an oval shaped cross section. A pair of flat, wide fins runs the length of the mantle. The mouth is surrounded by eight arms and two longer tentacles, all equipped with suckers. Mature Sepia officinalis exhibit a zebra stripe pattern on the dorsal surface of their mantles during breeding season. Adult males are distinguished by white and black zebra bands on their fourth arm, as well as white arm spots. Sepia officinalis is able to change the color and even texture of its skin using structures called chromatophores, leucophores, and iridophores. These structures function to camouflage this species to its variable surroundings. Generally, however, Sepia officinalis has a mottled black or brown color.

Range mass: 2 to 4 kg.

Range length: 60 (high) cm.

Average length: 45 cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; sexes colored or patterned differently

Sepia officinalis is a marine organism, categorized as a “shallow water cephalopod”, dwelling in sandy or muddy substrates. Its habitat ranges from subtidal waters to depths of 200 meters. Members of this species follow seasonal migrations. They spend spring and summer in inshore waters, then migrate to depths of 100 m to 200 m during autumn and winter. Sepia officinalis commonly spends the daytime hidden in sand.

Range depth: 0 to 200 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; coastal

shelf

Depth range based on 343 specimens in 3 taxa.
Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 152 samples.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 5 - 342
  Temperature range (°C): 6.946 - 19.658
  Nitrate (umol/L): 0.729 - 19.934
  Salinity (PPS): 34.662 - 38.091
  Oxygen (ml/l): 4.078 - 6.244
  Phosphate (umol/l): 0.091 - 1.550
  Silicate (umol/l): 1.778 - 14.027

Graphical representation

Depth range (m): 5 - 342

Temperature range (°C): 6.946 - 19.658

Nitrate (umol/L): 0.729 - 19.934

Salinity (PPS): 34.662 - 38.091

Oxygen (ml/l): 4.078 - 6.244

Phosphate (umol/l): 0.091 - 1.550

Silicate (umol/l): 1.778 - 14.027
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

 Found on sandy and muddy substrata, shallow sublittoral and offshore to 200 m, but typically to 100 m depth.

Occurs from the shallow sublittoral zone to depths of 200m, where it is found on muddy and sandy substrates (2).

Sepia officinalis preys upon a wide variety of animals. It primarily feeds on crustaceans and fish, but has also been known to eat gastropods, nemertean worms, polychaetes and even other cuttlefish. Sepia officinalis is an ambush predator that hunts by blending in with its background and sneaking up on prey. When the prey is close, Sepia officinalis has two modes of attack. One is to shoot out its two longer tentacles, grab the prey using the suckers on the tentacular clubs at the tips of the tentacles and bring the prey into its beak to feed. The other attack mode is pounce on its prey and use its arms to capture and maneuver the prey while it tears at the prey with its radula and beak. Both adult and immature cuttlefish hunt for food during the night. Some studies have shown that cuttlefish embryos have the ability to learn about prey items while still encased in their eggs using their fully-developed eyes to observe prey species. Hatchlings that observed crabs while inside their eggs preferred to eat crab over other prey items.

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic or marine worms; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore , Vermivore)

Sepia officinalis is highly active, grows quickly and expends high amounts of energy per reproductive effort. In order to meet its energetic needs, a cuttlefish will eat voraciously. Therefore, cuttlefish play an important ecological role as consumers. Because they eat a wide variety of prey and can be highly mobile, cuttlefish can fill a broad and flexible ecological niche.

Sepia officinalis is prey for large fish, seals, sharks, dolphins and whales. The cuttlefish avoids predation by camouflaging with its environment, disorienting predators by releasing ink when threatened, and propelling itself away from danger.

Known Predators:

• sharks
• dolphins and toothed whales (Odontoceti)
• large fish
• seals
• sea lions and fur seals

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Sepia officinalis has highly developed eyes and often communicates with other cuttlefish and predators using visual cues. Not only does it use its skin-changing ability to convey messages, but it also communicates by swimming in certain patterns or holding its tentacles in certain postures. In addition to communicating by altering its skin’s appearance, a cuttlefish can also indicate that it feels threatened by ejecting black ink from its siphon.

Communication Channels: visual

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile

Females deposit clusters of eggs on seaweed, shells, and other substrate along the seafloor. Eggs measure 6 to 9 mm in diameter, hatching after about 2 months, or 30-90 days, depending on water temperature. Once hatched, the young Sepia officinalis have a total length of 50 mm. Newly hatched young are well developed and can almost immediately start feeding on small prey. Growth rates vary with temperature, the young growing faster at lower temperatures. Sepia officinalis generally reaches maturity at 14 to 18 months of age.

Sepia officinalis has a typical lifespan of one to two years.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 1 to 2 years.

Typical lifespan

Status: captivity: 1 to 2 years.

Sepia officinalis has separate male and female sexes. In the spring and summer, male and females migrate to shallow, warmer waters to spawn. They exhibit elaborate courtships, wherein males attract females through spectacular displays of colored bands passing rapidly along their bodies. Males then hold their arms stiffly in a basket formation to show their virility. Similarly, females display a uniform gray color when ready to mate. Mate guarding, in which males aggressively fight over and guard their females, is also common.

Mating System: polygynous

Mating in Sepia officinalis involves internal fertilization. The male deposits spermaphores into the female’s buccal membrane using a hectocotylized arm (tentacle arm used as intromittent organ). Males carry as many as 1400 spermatophores, while females carry somewhere between 150 and 4000 eggs, depending on body size. Sepia officinalis reaches sexual maturity at 14 to 18 months of age. Females can lay eggs several times at the ends of their lives. However, after spawning both male and females die.

Breeding interval: European cuttlefish typically breed only once in their lifetime.

Breeding season: European cuttlefish breed during the spring and summer.

Range number of offspring: 100 to 1000.

Range gestation period: 30 to 90 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 14 to 18 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 13 to 18 months.

Key Reproductive Features: semelparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); oviparous

Fertilized eggs are stored in the oviduct of the female Sepia officinalis until they are ready to be deposited. Eggs are produced with deposits of ink, to color and, therefore, camouflage the eggs for protection. A young Sepia officinalis hatches with a yolk to provide nutritious support until they are able to catch their own prey.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female)

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There are 267 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 267
Species: 267
Species With Barcodes: 1

This species of cuttlefish are believed to be abundant and faces no threat of extinction. Studies indicate that fishing is occurring around the maximum sustainable yield, so no special conservation status is applied to them.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

Common and widespread.

This common species is fished commercially, and is also caught in bycatch (2).

No conservation action has been targeted at this common species.

There are no known adverse effects of Sepia officinalis on humans.

Sepia officinalis is commercially fished and eaten by humans. Its ink has many uses including homeopathic medicinal uses and use as dyes and paint. Many people keep cuttlefish as pets. People often give cuttlebones from cuttlefish to their pet birds as dietary supplements and to keep their birds' beaks in good health.

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; body parts are source of valuable material; source of medicine or drug ; research and education