The three-cusped pangolin is a nocturnal species, which spends its days sheltering in tree hollows (2), curled up amongst epiphytes, or in the forked branch of a tree (4). At night, it departs from its shelter and commences its search for food. Occasionally, the three-cusped pangolin may also descend to the ground, where it walks on all fours or moves about balanced just on its hindlimbs (2). Like all pangolins, this species specialises in feeding on ants and termites (4), although other invertebrates may also be eaten (1), and thus it searches for hanging ant and termite nests, or attacks a column of insects as they march around a tree (4), detecting their prey primarily by scent (5). The clawed forefeet are proficient in tearing apart nests, and insects stick to its incredibly long tongue as it darts in and out of the passageways (5). The three-cusped pangolin has no teeth, so prey is swallowed whole and ground up in the muscular stomach (5). Pangolins are generally solitary animals, only rarely seen in pairs. Typically, a single young is born in winter (5), after a gestation period of about 150 days (1). The newborn, whose scales do not harden until the second day of life, is then carried on the female's back or tail (5). All pangolins are also timid creatures, whose most efficient defence mechanism is to curl up into a tight ball. The sharp scales thus present an almost impenetrable wall, protecting the pangolin's vulnerable, soft underparts (5). A female with a young will curl its body around its young, and the erected scales and twitches of the tail act to deter many predators (5).

With its tough, scaly, armoured body, the three-cusped pangolin looks rather incongruous moving about amongst the foliage of tropical forests. However, with its long, prehensile tail which has a bare, sensory pad at the tip (4), and clawed feet (5), the three-cusped pangolin is well adapted to scale the trunks and branches of trees. Brown, sharp-edged, overlapping scales protect the body of the pangolin (2), which are attached at the base to its thick skin (5). Each of these artichoke-leaf shaped scales have three points, hence the common and scientific name tricuspis (2). The head of the three-cusped pangolin is small and pointed, with thick, heavy eyelids that protect its eyes from the bites of ants and termites on which it feeds (4) (5). For the same reason, its nostrils and ear openings can be closed by special muscles when feeding (4) (5). It feeds using its remarkably long tongue, which can extend to around 25 centimetres and is anchored to a point on the pelvis (5).

This species ranges from Guinea in West Africa through Sierra Leone and much of West Africa to Central Africa as far east as southwestern Kenya and north-western Tanzania and as far south (west of Lake Tanganyika) as north-western Zambia and northern Angola; also on Bioko (Kingdon and Hoffmann in press). There are no confirmed records from Senegal, The Gambia or Guinea-Bissau (Grubb et al. 1998).

African tree pangolins, Manis tricuspis, range across central Africa, from Senegal to Keyna in the east and northern Angola in the south.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

The three-cusped pangolin ranges from Guinea and Sierra Leone in West Africa, east to Kenya and Tanzania, and south to Zambia and Angola (1).

African tree pangolins are characterized by their eponymous scales, which terminate in three cusps. This scaly covering is found all over the body except on most of the face, the inside surface of the legs and the underbelly. Scale color ranges from dark brown to russet to a brownish yellow. They have an elongate skull and a long tongue that serves as their primary feeding tool. Their claws are large and curved, which assists them in their arboreal behavior and dietary habits. African tree pangolins express some sexual dimorphism, as males are slightly larger than females. They generally weigh between 4.5 and 14 kg and are 31 to 45 cm in length. Their average body temperature ranges from 32.6 to 33.6 ˚C. African tree pangolins are smaller than their cousin Manis gigantea, and their tails are thinner than those of most of their African and Asian counterparts.

Range mass: 4.5 to 14 kg.

Range length: 31 to 45 cm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

African tree pangolins inhabit primary tropical forests as well as mosaic forests. They are both arboreal, as their common name implies, as well as terrestrial.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest

This arboreal species inhabits lowland tropical moist forest, as well as forest-savannah mosaics. The three-cusped pangolin may also occur in cultivated and fallow land in areas where it is not hunted (1).

African tree pangolins are insectivorous, specializing on (ants and termites) as well as soft bodied invertebrates. Their tongue and face are well adapted to this insectivory; their elongated snout houses a muscular tongue that can be extended up to a third of their body length. They use their claws on their forelimbs to open an insect mound, and their tongue quickly darts in and out of the mound, collecting insects. African tree pangolins drink water in a similar manner.

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; terrestrial worms

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

African tree pangolins eat a considerable amount of insects including ants and termites, and they also serve as prey to many felids. They act as host to ticks of the genus Amblyomma.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• ticks Amblyomma

As a juvenile, infant African tree pangolins rely on the protective curling of their mothers around them to avoid predation. As an adult, they employ a similar strategy of curling up. They have also been known to escape into water to avoid predators. Predators include African golden cats and other felids. Humans also frequently hunt African tree pangolins.

Known Predators:

• African golden cats (Profelis aurata)
• humans (Homo sapiens)

African tree pangolins have poor vision, but they have an acute sense of smell. They can secrete pungent fluid from glands located near their anus. The use of this secretion is as yet unknown.

Communication Channels: chemical

The lifespan of African tree pangolins is currently unknown. One individual in captivity is still alive after 13 years 6 months of age.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 13.5 (high) years.

African tree pangolins are usually solitary, but they have been observed traveling in pairs. When a male comes across a female, mating occurs if the female is in estrus. Little else is known regarding the mating systems of African tree pangolins.

Mating System: monogamous

Although uncertain, it is believed that African tree pangolins can reproduce at any time of the year. Gestation lasts approximately 150 days. Females usually give birth to 1 infant, and,though uncommon, may produce two. Newborns weigh approximately 200 to 500 grams. Female African tree pangolins reach sexual maturity when they reach a length of approximately 810 mm.

Breeding season: Breeding of African tree pangolins can occur at any time of year.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Average gestation period: 150 days.

Range birth mass: 200 to 500 g.

Key Reproductive Features: year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Little information is known regarding parental investment of African tree pangolins. Mothers provide care for some duration of time, as infants ride on the back of their mother. For protection, the mother curls into a ball with the infant encompassed in the middle.

Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Species: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

African tree pangolins are listed as near threatened by the IUCN and on Appendix II by CITES. They vary in number regionally, though overall numbers are decreasing. They are protected by many local governments, but indigenous groups still hunt them for their meat and scales.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened

Classified as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List (1) and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Although not currently considered to be threatened with extinction, the three-cusped pangolin is suffering population declines as a result of hunting (1). It is exploited for its flesh which is eaten (1), and its scales which are used in traditional medicine (4). It is hunted at unsustainable levels in certain areas of its range, and is by far the most common of all pangolin species in African bushmeat markets (1).

Conservation Actions

The three-cusped pangolin is listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), thus the international trade that occurs in this species should be monitored to ensure it is compatible with the survival of the species (1) (3). However, the development and enforcement of laws to protect this pangolin are required (1), to ensure that the status of this species does not deteriorate any further.

There are no adverse effects of African tree pangolins on humans.

African tree pangolins are hunted for their meat and scales. The scales are used to make boots and shoes and are also used as indigenous ornaments and in medicines.

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material; source of medicine or drug