This species can be found in the USA. Plethodon glutinosus complex: southern New Hampshire (disjunctive), western Connecticut, and New York south to central Florida, west to Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and south-central Texas (disjunctive) (Petranka 1998). Plethodon glutinosus sensu Highton et al. (1989): northeastern USA to central Illinois, south to central Alabama, central Georgia, western Virginia, northern Maryland, and central New Jersey.

The slimy salamander has an extensive range throughout the eastern and central United States. Starting in central New York and the southern tip of Wisconsin, the range covers much of the eastern seaboard, moving southward to central Florida and the Gulf coast and westward to parts of east Texas and Oklahoma. It is notably absent from the lower Mississippi valley, presumably because flooding causes frequent disturbance to the preferred habitat of the slimy salamander in that region (Grobman 1944).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

endemic to a single nation

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) Plethodon glutinosus complex: southern New Hampshire (disjunct), western Connecticut, and New York south to central Florida, west to Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and south-central Texas (disjunct) (Petranka 1998).

Plethodon glutinosus sensu Highton et al. (1989): northeastern United States to central Illinois, south to central Alabama, central Georgia, western Virginia, northern Maryland, and central New Jersey.

The slimy salamander has mainly black skin, covered by abundant silver-white or brassy specks, or both; the ventrum has variable shades but is generally lighter than the dorsum. The organism is distinguished from other dark salamanders in its range by the presence of a nasolabial groove. More noticeably, P. glutinosus is defined by a slimy, glue-like secretion released from its skin glands. It has 16 costal grooves, on rare occurrences 15 or 17, and generally ranges from 4.75 to 6.75 inches in length (Conant and Collins 1998). Hatchlings are born with only slight dark coloration on the dorsum and none on the ventrum; melanin for the specks begins to appear on the dorsum after three days. Adult females exhibit slightly larger snout-to-vent lengths than adult males, but are otherwise similar in appearance (Highton 1956).

Average mass: 4.2 g.

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.00191 W.

Length: 21 cm

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

The slimy salamander is commonly found beneath stones and decaying logs in wooded areas and alongside streams, as well as in the crevices of shale banks and along the sides of gullies and ravines (Davidson 1956; Grobman 1944). It generally moves about underground using animal and insect burrows (Cowley 1999). Mean home-range area is 3.01 +/- .613 sq. meters for adults and 3.46 +/- 1.851 sq. meters for juveniles (Marvin 1998).

Terrestrial Biomes: forest

Comments: Wooded slopes, ravines, floodplains, shalebanks, and cave entrances; most often in hardwood forest, sometimes in pinelands. Generally under or in rotting logs, stumps, or leaf litter, or under rocks, during the day. Goes underground during dry or freezing weather. Eggs are laid in rotting logs, underground, or in rock crevices.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Prey of P. glutinosus consists mainly of ants (42%), followed by beetles (26%), sowbugs, and earthworms, depending on what is seasonally most prevalent (Davidson 1956).

Comments: Eats a wide variety of small terrestrial invertebrates (e.g., mites, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, earthworms, insects, and snails (Green and Pauley 1987).

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: This species, whether defined in the broad sense (e.g., Petranka 1998) or more narrowly (e.g., sensu Highton et al. 1989), is represented by many and/or large occurrences throughout most of the range.

100,000 - 1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Total adult population size is unknown but probably exceeds 100,000.

Density was estimated at 0.23/sq m in the Great Smoky Mountains (see Petranka et al. 1993). Based on removal sampling in 30 x 30 m plots in North Carolina, Petranka and Starnes (2001) estimated minimum density at 690 individuals per hectare.

Comments: Inactive during freezing weather and dry spells. Often active at night; may be active diurnally in wet weather. Southern populations active throughout the year.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 5.5 years.

Maximum longevity: 20.1 years (captivity)

Breeding of P. glutinosus takes place at the beginning of April and eggs are deposited anytime from late spring in the northern part of the range to very late summer at the range's southern tip. Eggs are laid in moist areas such as caves or under the bark of rotting trees. Clutch size ranges from 4 to 12 eggs. Hatchlings emerge close to three months after eggs are deposited (Highton 1956). Juveniles have no aquatic stage and develop directly to adulthood, as the species is entirely terrestrial (Feder 1983).

Female slimy salamanders do not sexually mature until they are two years old, and cannot lay eggs until approaching age three. The same is true for most males, although some have been found capable of breeding at two years of age. In regions where the growing season is short, a wait of three years is almost certain before sexual maturity is reached (Highton 1962).

Average number of offspring: 21.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

Sex: male: 910 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 910 days.

Plethodon glutinosus complex: Lays up to about 3 dozen eggs in late spring in north, August-October in south. Larval stage passed in egg with female in attendance. Hatching occurs in late summer in north, in fall or winter in south (e.g., Camp and Jensen, 2004, Herpetol. Rev. 35:156). Breeding tends to be biennial in north and at higher elevations, annual in south and low elevations. Sexually mature in 2 years in the southern part of the range, 4 years in north (pertains to the P. glutinosus group as a whole).

According to the U.S. Fisheries and Wildlife Service, the slimy salamander is considered neither a threatened nor endangered species throughout its range. However, some species within the P. glutinosus complex (see Other Comments) may be candidates for the endangered and threatened species lists (USFWS 1999).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Large range in the eastern U.S.; taxonomic scope of the species is debatable, but rank is G5 even with the most restrictive application of the name P. glutinosus.

Intrinsic Vulnerability: Moderately vulnerable

Environmental Specificity: Moderate. Generalist or community with some key requirements scarce.

Population

Population Trend

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: Likely stable in extent of occurrence and probably stable to slightly declining in population size, area of occupancy, and number/condition of occurrences. In the southern Appalachians, populations fluctuated over a 20-year period (early 1970s to early 1990s), with no apparent long-term trend (Hairston and Wiley 1993).

Global Long Term Trend: Increase of 10-25% to decline of 30%

Comments: Likely relatively stable in extent of occurrence, probably less than 25% decline in population size, area of occurrence, and number/condition of occurrences.

Major Threats

Comments: Intensive harvest of mature forest greatly reduces salamander density in the logged area; population recovery occurs slowly (Herbeck and Larsen 1999). However, logging does not constitute a major threat to the security of the global population.

Conservation Actions

Global Protection: Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Many occurrences are in protected areas.

Comments: Highton et al. (1989) regarded P. glutinosus (sensu lato) as a complex of multiple species, most of which can be recognized only by biochemical characteristics (allele frequencies). Taxa formerly included in P. glutinosus and recognized as distinct species by Highton et al. (1989) include: P. teyahalee, P. chattahoochee, P. chlorobryonis, P. variolatus, P. ocmulgee, P. kiamichi, P. mississippi, P. kisatchie, P. sequoyah, P. grobmani, P. cylindraceus, P. albagula, P. savannah, P. aureolus, and P. kentucki. Some salamander taxonomists question the practice of recognizing species that are distinguished only by differences in allele frequencies, particularly in the absence of direct information on reproductive isolation (Wake, in Highton et al. 1989; Frost and Hillis 1990).

Petranka (1998) regarded P. aureolus, P. kentucki, and P. teyahalee (as P. oconaluftee) as distinct species, but he regarded P. chattahoochee, P. chlorobryonis, P. variolatus, P. ocmulgee, P. kiamichi, P. mississippi, P. kisatchie, P. sequoyah, P. grobmani, P. cylindraceus, P. albagula, and P. savannah as conspecific with (and junior synonyms of) P. glutinosus. Petranka felt that the split of P. glutinosus into multiple species was premature because of the lack of detailed information on genetic interactions at contact zones between the nominal taxa.

Carr (1996) examined morphological variation in members of the P. glutinosus complex. About 75% of the variation among species was explained by overall body size. Morphological variation appeared to be influenced more by physiographic province than by genetic similarity. Carr found two major morphological groups: a group of small-bodied species occurring primarily in the Coastal Plain physiographic province and a group of large-bodied species occurring outside the Coastal Plain. Plethodon aureolus, from the mountains of Tennessee, was the sole exception to this pattern (clustered with Coastal Plain group). Plethodon kentucki, from the Cumberland Plateau, was morphologically distinctive and did not cluster with either group.