Adult R. Aurora range from 4.4 to 8.4 cm in length, with females significantly larger than males (Stebbins 1985; Hayes and Miyamoto 1984). The abdomen and underside of hind legs is characterized by a red or pinkish color, often set on a yellowish ground color (Stebbins 1985). Back is a brown, gray, olive, or reddish color, often with may small black flecks and irregular dark splotches, in some individuals forming a network of black lines (Stebbins 1985). Dorsolateral folds are prominent. Tadpoles range in length from 14 to 80 mm, and are a dark brown or olive, marked with darker spots (Storer 1925).
 
R. aurora differs from its close relative, the California red legged frog, R. draytonii in several ways. Adult R. draytonii are 35 to 40 millimeters longer than adult R. aurora (Hayes and Miyamoto 1984). The dorsal spots of R. draytonii are more numerous, and usually have light centers (Stebbins 1985). R. draytonii also has rougher skin, shorter limbs and smaller eyes than R. aurora (Stebbins 1985). R. draytonii has paired vocal sacs and typically calls from the air , while R. aurora lacks vocal sacks ( Hayes and Krempels 1986; Licht 1969). Egg masses in R. draytonii are deposited such that the mass floats at the surface (Hayes and Miyamoto 1984), whereas R. aurora submerge the mass in deeper water (Licht 1969; Storm 1960). R. draytonii breed from November to April (Storer 1925), while R. aurora breeds from January to March (Nussbaum et al 1983).

See other subspecies accounts at www.californiaherps.com: R. a. aurora and R. a. draytonii.

Range extends from southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island in Canada, south along the coast of the United States (primarily west of Cascade-Sierran crest), to northwestern California (Shaffer et al. 2004). The species has been introduced and is well established and widely distributed on Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii), British Columbia; it is unclear whether the species is native there or introduced many years ago (Ovaska et al. 2002). Rana aurora also is introduced and established on Chichagof Island, Alaska; the source of the frogs was Oregon (Hodge 2004).

Rana aurora occcurs in the state of California in North America. Two subspecies of R. aurora occupy different ranges within the state. The first, Rana aurora aurora, or the Northern Red-legged frog, occupies the extreme northwestern corner of Calfornia, north to southern British Columbia, west of the Cascade crest. The second, Rana aurora draytonii, or the Calfornia Red-legged frog, occupies central and southern portions of the state, west of the Sierran divides and into the mountains of southern California up to an altitude of 4000 feet.

(Grinnell, 1917; Defenders of Wildlife; Davidson, 1996)

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) Range extends from southwestern British Columbia, including Vancouver Island in Canada, south along the coast of the United States (primarily west of Cascade-Sierran crest), to northwestern California (Shaffer et al. 2004). The species has been introduced and is well established and widely distributed on Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands (Haida Gwaii), British Columbia; it is unclear whether the species is native there or introduced many years ago (Ovaska et al. 2002). Rana aurora also is introduced and established on Chichagof Island, Alaska; the source of the frogs was Oregon (Hodge 2004).

R. aurora ranges from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, south along the Pacific coast, west of the Cascade Ranges to Northern California. R. aurora live in areas subject to temporal and spatial changes, and therefore make use of a variety of habits, consisting of both aquatic, upland and riparian (Draft Recovery Plan). Adults breed in ponds or deep pools in slow-moving creeks. Where ponds are seasonal in nature, thickets and logjams along riparian corridors provide important non-breeding habitat. Populations are most likely to persist in areas with multiple breeding sites surrounded by suitable non-breeding habitat (N. Scott and G. Rathbun in litt. 1998).

Rana aurora reaches from 2 to 5.25 inches in length. It is reddish brown to gray and contains many poorly defined dark specks and blotches, which are absent on the back and top of its head. A light stripe on its jaw borders its dark mask. Folds are present on its back and sides, and the underside is yellow with red on the lower abdomen and hind legs. Its toes are not fully webbed. Females grow larger than males. Males, however, have enlarged forearms and swollen thumbs. Rana aurora aurora has very smooth and thin skin and an unspotted dorsal surface. Rana aurora draytonii has thick, rough skin, light centered spots on its dorsal surface, and a larger build. Northern red-legged frogs have no vocal sacs while Southern red-legged frogs have paired vocal sacs.

(Green,1996; Hayes, 1986; Thomas,1993; USFW, 1996; Defenders of Wildlife)

Length: 14 cm

Differs from R. PRETIOSA in having a mottled groin, eyes that are not turned upward, and the light jaw stripe ending before the shoulder rather than usually reaching the shoulder. Differs from R. CASCADAE in having less well-defined black spots on the dorsum, usually red rather than yellow on the lower abdomen and underside of the limbs, a more mottled groin, and generally smoother skin. Differs from R. BOYLII in having usually red rather than yellow on the underside of the limbs, a dark mask, prominent rather than indistinct dorsolateral folds, and smooth rather than granular eyedrums. (Stebbins 1985).

Syntype for Rana aurora
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Amphibians & Reptiles
Preparation: Ethanol
Year Collected: 1841
Locality: Puget Sound, Locality In Multiple Counties, Washington, United States, North America

Paralectotype for Rana aurora
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Amphibians & Reptiles
Preparation: Ethanol
Year Collected: 1841
Locality: Puget Sound, Locality In Multiple Counties, Washington, United States, North America

Paralectotype for Rana aurora
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Amphibians & Reptiles
Preparation: Ethanol
Year Collected: 1841
Locality: Puget Sound, Locality In Multiple Counties, Washington, United States, North America

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater

Adult frogs must have emergent riparian vegetation near deep, still or slow-moving ponds or intermittent streams. These well-vegetated areas along the river are needed for escaping from predators, for shade to maintain cool water temperatures, and as shelter especially during the winter. Rana aurora aurora has the lowest upper and lower embryonic temperatures of any North American ranid frog, ranging from 4 to 21 degrees Celsius. Rana aurora draytonii cannot be exposed to water temperatures much higher than 29 degrees Celsius. They are found more often in intermittent than permanent waters because of predators that inhabit permanent waters. Red-legged frogs may move out of riparian zones into nearby upland forest during non-breeding seasons. R. a. draytonii may move seasonally within their aquatic habitats between places where they breed and foraging habitats.

(Cole, 1997; Defenders of Wildlife; Davidson, 1996)

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; rivers and streams

Comments: Habitat includes the vicinity of permanent waters of stream pools, marshes, ponds, and other quiet bodies of water. This frog regularly occurs in damp woods and meadows some distance from water, especially during wet weather. Individuals (especially juveniles) seasonally can be found in and near ephemeral pools. Estivation sites include small mammal burrows and moist leaf litter in dense riparian vegetation up to at least 26 meters from water (Rathbun et al. 1993, cited by USFWS 1994). Desiccation cracks in dry pond bottoms may be used as refuges (Alvarez, 2004, Herpetol. Rev. 35:162-163). Breeding sites most often are in permanent water; eggs are attached to stiff submerged stems at the surface of the water.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

In Oregon, Hayes et al. (2001) found that four individuals moved 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, and 2.4 km between capture points (these were the largest documented movements).

Red-legged frogs have a highly variable diet, eating any prey they can subdue that is not distasteful. Adults feed on invertebrates, small mammals and other amphibians like the small tree frog. Larvae are thought to feed on algae.

(Davidson, 1996; Defenders of Wildlife)

Comments: Diet includes beetles, caterpillars, isopods, and various other small invertebrates (Nussbaum et al. 1983). In California, diet mainly invertebrates of shoreline or water surface; large adults also may eat small vertebartes. Larvae eat algae, organic debris, plant tissue, and other minute organisms.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 - 300

Comments: This species is represented by a large number of occurrences.

10,000 - 1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Total adult population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10,000. This species is relatively widespread and common over most of its range (McAllister and Leonard, in Jones et al. 2005; Pearl in Lannoo 2005).

Comments: Inactive in cold temperatures and hot, dry weather. May be active all year in coastal areas, inactive late summer to early winter elsewhere (Zeiner et al. 1988). In California, adults and subadults apparently mainly nocturnal; juveniles active day or night (Hayes and Tennant 1985).

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 15 years.

Maximum longevity: 15 years (wild) Observations: Animals living in the north, also called Northern red-legged frogs, appear to develop slower, probably due to the colder water temperatures, and live longer. In California, maximum lifespan is probably around 10 years. Northern frogs also lay fewer eggs.

Reproduction in Northern Red-legged frogs occurs from late November to early April to ensure cool water, six or seven degrees Celsius. These conditions ensure embroyonic survival and sufficient water for larval growth and metamorphosis. Red-legged frogs breed via external fertilization. The male grasps the female in a process call amplexus, and while the female lays her eggs, he fertilizes them with a fluid containing sperm. The female lays egg masses (ranging from 2000 to 5000 eggs in R. a. draytonii and 500-1100 in R. a. aurora) in permanent bodies of water that contain extensive vegetation, consisting of cattails and tules or bulrushes growing in the water with a vertical orientation. R. a. draytonii eggs are attached at or near the surface of the water while R. a. aurora eggs are attached at a minimum depth of eighteen inches and at least two to three feet from the water's edge. The eggs are dark brown and range from 2.0 to 2.8 millimeters in diameter. The eggs hatch anywhere from six to fourteen days between July and September into brown tadpoles that can reach around three inches long within four to seven months. They then grow legs, lose their tales, and change into a juvenile form of the adult frog with dark masks on their faces and bright orange folds on their backs. As they grow into adults, the froglets move from shallow water to knee-deep water to hide from larger predators. Males can probably reproduce after three years of age while females reproduce after four. Life spans of the California Red-legged frog are about eight years for males and ten for females, while Northern red-legged frogs live twelve to fifteen years.

(Hickman and Roberts, 1995; Jennings, 1985; Davidson, 1996; USFW 1996; Defenders of Wildlife)

Average number of offspring: 2000.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

Sex: male: 1095 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 1460 days.

Breeding time varies geographically; breeds March-July in the north. Breeding period lasts about 1-2 weeks. Eggs hatch in 5-7 weeks in western Oregon. Larvae metamorphose in about 11-20 weeks, but sometimes may overwinter. Larvae in British Columbia metamorphosed in 11-14 weeks.

Rana aurora draytonii has been declared a threatened species by the Fish and Wildlife Services following a year-long Congressional moratorium on listings which began April of 1995 and was lifted the next April by President Clinton. Rana aurora draytonii was harvested at the turn of the century for its prized frog legs. As a result of this overharvesting, populations declined drastically. Bullfrogs that eat the eggs of R. a. draytonii were introduced as a substitute for the red-legged frogs, along with non-native fish, and replaced them in habitat. Exotic plant species have also taken over the riparian habitat of R. a. draytonii. Dam construction also poses a threat to the frogs, it destroys and fragments its habitat and reservoirs favor aquatic predators. Road-building has also put silt into pools that the frogs dwell in, and flood projects along with livestock grazing along streams destroy emergent vegetation. Pollution from garbage and sewage contaminate the clean waters that provide a habitat for the frogs. R. a. draytonii has disappeared from 75 percent of its historic range. A few things are being done to help this subspecies recover. Dense stands of riparian vegetation in slow or still waters are being maintained along with sufficient water depth for these frogs. Silt removal is being proposed during fall months so as not to disturb the breeding season. Exotic plant species are being removed and red-legged frog tadpoles are being introduced. Fences and buffer zones around frog habitats are also being proposed to cattle ranchers. Results of studies on clear-cutting have shown that R. aurora was found more frequently in riparian environments than upslope areas.

(Cole, 1997; Davidson, 1996; USFW 1996, Defenders of Wildlife)

US Federal List: threatened

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N3 - Vulnerable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N4 - Apparently Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Reasons: Large range in western North America; substantial declines in some areas; still widespread, common, and apparently secure in many areas; warrants rangewide monitoring.

Intrinsic Vulnerability: Moderately vulnerable

Environmental Specificity: Moderate. Generalist or community with some key requirements scarce.

Population

Population Trend

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable to decline of 30%

Comments: Currently, area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size probably are declining, though the magnitude of the decline is uncertain.

Global Long Term Trend: Decline of 30-50%

Comments: Over the long term, extent of occurrence, area of occurrence, number/condition of subpoppulations, and population size have declined, but the amount of decline is uncertain.

R. aurora breed during a 1-2 week period between January and March, depending on locality (Stebbins 1985; Nussbaum et al. 1983). Egg masses consist of between 300 and 5,000 eggs (Recovery Plan for the California Red-legged Frog 2002; Storer 1925; Fellers unpubl.). Egg masses are nearly always attached to emergent vegetation, submerged beneath the surface in the deepest water available (Hayes and Miyamoto 1984; Licht 1969; Storm 1960). Eggs hatch after 6 to 14 days depending on water temperature ( Jennings 1988). Larvae typically metamorphose in 3.5 to 7 months ( Storer 1925; Wright and Wright 1949), but some overwinter and transform after more than 12 months in the larval stage (Fellers et al. in press). Males may attain sexual maturity at 2 years, females at 3 (Jennings and Hayes 1985), and adult frogs may live 8 to 10 years. (Jennings et al in lit 1992). Larvae are thought to be algal grazers ( Jennings et al in lit 1992), and the adult diet consists mostly of invertebrates. Pacific Tree Fogs (Hyla regilla) and California mice (Peromyscus californicus are occasionally consumed by adult frogs ( Hayes and Tennant 1985). Juvenile frogs may be active both nocturnally and diurnally, whereas adult frogs are primarily active nocturnally ( Hayes and Tennant 1985). The primary predators on R. aurora include garter snakes (Thamnophis spp.), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and great blue herons (Ardea herodias). Less frequently, red-legged frogs are eaten by American bitterns (Botaurus lentiginosus), black-crowned night herons(Nycticorax nycticorax), and rarely by red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus)(Jennings and Hayes 1990; Rathbun and Murphy 1996). Other introduced species such as the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and non-native fish also prey on the frog.

Major Threats

Degree of Threat: B : Moderately threatened throughout its range, communities provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure of the community over the long-term, but are apparently recoverable

Comments: Factors contributing to local declines include wetland destruction and degradation/fragmentation, urbanization, residential development, reservoir construction, stream channelization, livestock grazing of riparian vegetation, off-road vehicle activity, drought, overharvesting, and exotic fishes (bass, mosquitofish) and possibly bullfrogs (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1998; USFWS 1994, 1996, 2000; Adams 1999, 2000; Lawler et al. 1999; Cook and Jennings 2001; Kiesecker, Blaustein and Miller 2001a; Cook 2002). An important threat is the loss of wetlands in the Willamette Valley (Oregon) and Puget Lowlands (Washington), but populations remain in some urbanized areas (see Pearl, in Lannoo 2005). Conversion of habitat to more permanent ponds is an important threat (as this allows breeding waters to be invaded by non-native predators). Habitat characteristics and good leaping ability may render Rana aurora less vulnerable to bullfrog predation than is Rana pretiosa (Pearl et al. 2004). McAllister and Leonard (in Jones et al. 2005) noted that in many areas red-legged frogs coexist with bullfrogs.

Declines in the red-legged frog complex (including Rana draytonii) also have been attributed to global warming, UV-B radiation (Belden and Blaustein 2002), airborne contaminants (pesticide drift), and disease (see Davidson et al. 2001). Davidson et al. (2002) found support for the negative impact of wind-borne agrochemicals and weaker evidence for the widespread impact of habitat destruction and UV-B radiation; evidence did not support the hypothesis that declines have been caused by climate change.

Many factors are contributing to the decline of R. aurora populations, the main being habitat destruction and degradation. Introduced predators and perhaps disease have also contributed to the decline of this species (Fellers et al in press)

Conservation Actions

Global Protection: Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Rana aurora occurs in many protected areas, including several small wildlife refuges in Oregon and Washington managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and in some state refuges. Most of its range is within actively managed agricultural and forestry matrix (under the control of private owners, the Bureau of Land Management, or the U.S. Forest Service).

The red-legged frog has been used as a resource for fisheries since the the gold rush of 1849. Its frog legs are used by many humans from the region as food. Like many other amphibians, this species can be used to indicate changes in the environment such as the cleanliness of the water and the amount of vegetation in the area. It is the prey of many native animals as well as a predator of many insects and other invertebrates, therefore it is necessary in sustaining an ecological balance in thier environment.

(Jennings, 1985; USFW 1996)

The primary impact from humans has been from direct habitat loss, especially the construction of houses, shopping centers, and roads. Much of the range of R. aurora has been historically grazed, both by dairy and by beef cattle. Cattle grazing in riparian zones causes serious damage to the vegetation, stream channel, and water quality. R. aurora may have benefited from beef cattle grazing due to the increased number of stock ponds that are maintained for the cattle. R. aurora are also threatened by a number of introduced (non-native) species, some of which are regularly introduced by humans. These include sunfish, bass, trout, mosquitofish, and bullfrogs (Fellers et al in press).

Comments: Shaffer et al. (2004) presented genetic evidence supporting the recognition of Rana aurora and R. draytonii as distinct species.

MtDNA data suggest that R. aurora, R. cascadae, and R. muscosa form a clade within the R. boylii species group (Macey et al. 2001).