Table of Contents
Overview
Brief Summary
Biology
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Comprehensive Description
Description
Male generally larger and heavier than female. A diminutive cat, smaller and more compact than the Wild Cat with proportionately shorter legs. Pale buff above, paling toward flanks and legs, and white below. Throat tinged orange. Obscurely marked with pale brown stripes along the flanks. Forelegs strongly marked with two transverse blackish stripes. Hind legs less strongly marked with up to 5 brownish stripes. Feet with pads completely covered with long, brown hair. Head broad and flat, face pale marked with orange-buff. Ears very large and broad, almost meeting over the forehead. Inner side whitish, outer buff with darker patch. Eyes large with yellow iris. Tail long (about half the body length) grayish buff above, paler below. Faintly ringed with 2-6 tail rings and with clear blackish tip.
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Description
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Distribution
Range Description
In north Africa, Sliwa (in press) has summarized what is known of its distribution: the Sand Cat occurs marginally in western Morocco, including former Sahara Occidental, Algeria, and from the Sinai peninsula to the rocky deserts of eastern Egypt. Although there have been sightings, no specimens have been collected from Tunisia, Libya, or in Egypt, west of the Nile River. There are sight records from Mali (including a recent night time observation in the Lake Faguibine area: O. Hamerlynck pers. comm. 2011) and both specimens and sightings in Niger. In Mauritania, it is supposed to occur in the Adrar mountains and Majabat al Koubra. Thought to be present, but currently no specimens available, in Senegal and Chad, where spoor have been found, and also Sudan.
In Asia, there is a recent new country distribution record for Syria, around the area of Palmyra (Serra et al. in press). It is not known if the small populations of Sand Cats in Pakistan?s Balochistan province are connected to the central Asian population via Afghanistan (Habibi 2004). It has been recorded from the desert regions west of the Caspian Sea (in northern Iran, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), but it is not known if the distribution is or was continuous to the Arabian peninsula (Hemmer et al. 1976, Nowell and Jackson 1996, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
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Geographic Range
This species is found in three distinct areas of the world: Sahara Desert of Africa in the countries of Algeria, Niger and Morocco; throughout the Arabian Peninsula; and parts of Central Asia including Turkmenistan, Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); ethiopian (Native )
- IUCN World Conservation Union. 1996. "Sand Cat Felis margarita Locke 1858" (On-line). IUCN World Conservation Union. Accessed January 29, 2004 at http://lynx.uio.no/catfolk/sandct01.htm.
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Records
9 records. Latest in 2003 (Eastern Desert).
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Distribution in Egypt
Narrow (Sinai, southern Eastern Desert). AOO=33.6 km². EOO=125153 km². 4 locations.
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Global Distribution
Narrow (Mauritania to Pakistan).
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Range
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Felis margarita is the size of a domestic cat and the smallest of all wild cats, weighing between 2.1-3.4 kg (males) and 1.4-3.1 kg (females). Their most distinctive characteristic is their large ear pinnae, which protect the ears from blowing sand. The most highly developed senses of this species are hearing and smelling. Being nocturnal animals, they rely on sensitive hearing to locate prey moving below the surface of the ground. The tympanic meatus and auditory bulla are relatively much larger in this species than in any other felids. Thick fur of medium length covers the body and protects it from the harsh nighttime temperatures. Coat colors range from pale yellow to grey. They have dark brown to black stripes covering the tail and limbs and the eyes are accented with reddish-orange stripes. The chest and chin are always white. Another distinguishing characteristic of the species is the wiry, black fur that covers the pads of their feet, protecting them from the desert's hot surfaces. The hair aids in increasing the maneuverability through the sand. Researchers find this characteristic troublesome because it makes their footprints almost invisible.
Range mass: 1.4 to 3.4 kg.
Range length: 450 to 570 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
- Garman, A. 1997. "Sand Cat Felis margarita" (On-line). Big Cats Online. Accessed February 03, 2004 at http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/agarman/sandcat.htm.
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Size
Size
Length 46 cm, weight 1.5–3.5 kg.
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Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
Small rodents are their primary prey, with records from Africa including including Spiny Mice (Acomys spp), Jirds (Meriones spp), Gerbils (Gerbillus spp), and Jerboas (Jaculus spp. and Allactaga tetradactyla), but also young of Cape Hare (Lepus capensis). They have also been observed to hunt small birds like Greater Hoopoe Lark (Alaemon alaudipes), Desert Lark (Ammomanes deserti), and consume reptiles such as Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus), Fringe-toed lizards (Acanthodactylus spp.), Sandfish (Scincus scincus), Short-fingered Gecko (Stenodactylus spp.), Horned and Sand vipers of the genus Cerastes, and insects (De Smet 1988, Abbadi 1993, Dragesco-Joffé 1993, Sliwa in press). Sand-dwelling rodents made up the majority (65–88%) of stomach contents from carcasses collected in Turkmenistan and Uzebekistan in the 1960s (Schaenberg 1974). In Arabia the sand cat's distribution coincides with that of Sand Skinks and Arabian toad-head lizards; both reptiles are thought to be an important source of food for the cat (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002).
They are capable of rapid digging to extract the latter prey items (Schauenberg 1974). Sand Cats may cover kills with sand and return later to feed. Independent of drinking water they are capable of satisfying their moisture requirements from their prey, but drink readily if it is available (Sliwa in press). They appear to be primarily nocturnal (Abbadi 1993, Nowell and Jackson 1996).
Sand Cats have been recorded to move long distances in a single night (5–10 km), and a radio telemetry study in Israel suggests large home ranges, with one male using an area of 16 km² (Abbadi 1993). Annual ranges from the ongoing study in Saudi Arabia are larger, up to 40 km² (M. Strauss pers. comm. 2008).
Systems
- Terrestrial
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Habitat
Members of this species are psammophillic (sand dwelling), occurring in very arid, dry habitats such as deserts. They are found in desert habitats ranging from plains with little vegetation to rocky valleys with shrubs and trees. They live in extreme conditions with daily surface temperatures reaching up to 124ºC during the daytime, while nighttime temperatures can drop as low as -0.5ºC.
Habitat Regions: terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune
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Habitat
Sandy deserts for which the heavily haired soles are thought to be an adaptation. Also more rocky areas, but not mountains.
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Habitat
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Sand cats are mostly carnivorous and eat a variety of prey such as gerbils, sand voles, hares, spiders, reptiles, birds, insects and venomous snakes. This species are known to be “fearless snake hunters” that attack venomous vipers. They are considered opportunistic feeders that take what they can find in their barren habitat. Prey provide the sand cat with the fluids they need to live in places where there is little water.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates, Insectivore )
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Associations
Ecosystem Roles
The sand cat is considered a rare species. As a result, very little research has been conducted on this species. As with any species, they play an ecological role in their habitats. The sand cat preys on animals such as rodents, reptiles and birds and therefore the disappearance of this species may lead to an increase in the prey species. Because the sand cat is rare, it is probably not a species that is crucial to its predators such as owls, jackals and snakes.
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Predation
Predators of sand cats include of snakes, jackals and owls. In addition to natural predators, the sand cat is also threatened by humans in the form of poisoning and capturing for the illegal pet trade. Overall, the sand cat is the least threatened of wild cats.
Known Predators:
- snakes (Serpentes)
- jackals (Canis)
- owls (Strigiformes)
Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic
- Saint Louis Zoo. 2003. "Sand Cat" (On-line). Saint Louis Zoo. Accessed February 03, 2004 at http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/mammals/carnivores/sandcat.htm.
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Life History and Behavior
Behavior
Communication and Perception
Bark-like sounds are used as mating calls to communicate between individuals. They allow individuals to locate one another over long distances.
Communication Channels: acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: acoustic
- The Cat Survival Trust. 1996. "The Sand Cat Felis margarita Loche" (On-line). The Cat Survival Trust. Accessed January 29, 2004 at http://members.aol.com/cattrust/sand.htm.
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Behaviour
Little known. Strictly nocturnal, wanders widely at night though has been observed basking by day on very rare occasions. Has been observed surveying surroundings for up to 15 minutes with just its head out of the burrow prior to coming out. Similar procedure practiced before returning into the burrow. By day in a burrow or other shelter amongst rocks, etc. Dens may be used by several cats at different times. Not a good climber. Thought to feed largely on small desert rodents, including the Lesser Egyptian Jerboa Jaculus jaculus, Cairo Spiny Mouse Acomys cahirinus, and probably Meriones spp. Sand Cats observed on the Qift-Quseir Road were thought to be preying on Meriones crassus that had been attracted to the road by leaking grain from lorries. Also seen to take geckos (Stenodactylus spp.), but probably also takes birds, other reptiles, and large insects. Hunts largely by hearing, which is excellent. Sight very good, scent less well-developed. Solitary with home range probably large (owing to sparse food resources), though territories of males may overlap. Radio tracking in Israel has shown that Sand Cats will move up to 8km in one night, with an average of 5.4km covered. When threatened behaves much as Wild Cat. Breeding unknown in Egypt but elsewhere gestation 63 days giving birth in March/April to 2-5 kittens. Voice as for Wild Cat but has a loud mewing mating call likened by one author to the yelp of a small dog. Tracks almost invisible because of dense fur. Pads not apparent.
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Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
The sand cat is known to live 13 years in captivity, but they have a high juvenile mortality rate.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 13 years.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 13.9 years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
Sand cats are a solitary species and not much is known of their mating systems. It is believed that their hearing plays an important part in communication during the mating season.
Sand cats in captivity breed more than once a year. In the wild their reproductive seasons are dependent on location. In the deserts of the Sahara, the reproductive season begins in January and ends in April. In Turkmenistan, the season begins sometime in April. In Pakistan, the breeding season lasts from September to October. In part, the differences may be due to climate or availability of resources. The gestation period lasts, on average, 59-63 days. Sand cats give birth to between 1-8 kittens although 4-5 kittens are normal. Although sand cats are not sexually mature until 9-14 months, they are relatively independent at 6-8 months of age. Fast maturity may be an advantageous trait in such a hostile environment.
Breeding interval: once/year, but in captivity they can breed more than once annually
Breeding season: January-April (Sahara), April (Turkmenistan) & September- October (Pakistan)
Range number of offspring: 2 to 8.
Average number of offspring: 4.
Range gestation period: 59 to 63 days.
Range time to independence: 6 to 8 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 9 to 14 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 9 to 14 months.
Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous
Average birth mass: 55.5 g.
Average number of offspring: 4.5.
No information is available at this time.
Parental Investment: altricial
- IUCN World Conservation Union. 1996. "Sand Cat Felis margarita Locke 1858" (On-line). IUCN World Conservation Union. Accessed January 29, 2004 at http://lynx.uio.no/catfolk/sandct01.htm.
- International Society for Endangered Cats Canada. 2002. "Sand Cat" (On-line). International Society for Endangered Cats Canada. Accessed February 09, 2004 at http://www.wildcatconservation.org/cats/factsheets/africa/sand/index.shtml.
- Garman, A. 1997. "Sand Cat Felis margarita" (On-line). Big Cats Online. Accessed February 03, 2004 at http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/agarman/sandcat.htm.
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Evolution and Systematics
Functional Adaptations
Functional adaptation
Hairy pads or bristles on the feet of desert creatures help them move on loose sand by providing a braking mechanism as the feet push backwards.
"Soles equipped with bristles or hairy pads are also suitable for locomotion over loose sand. Many desert and steppe dwellers walk on such soft and comfortable soles; notable examples are the tarsiers, Tenebrionidae and Asilidae, the Eligmodontia mouse, the sand cat, and the fennec fox." (Tributsch 1984:73)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Tributsch, H. 1984. How life learned to live. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. 218 p.
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Felis margarita
Public Records: 0
Species: 2
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Contributor/s
Justification
History
- 2008Near Threatened(IUCN 2008)
- 2002Near Threatened
- 1996Lower Risk/least concern(Baillie and Groombridge 1996)
- 1994Insufficiently Known(Groombridge 1994)
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Conservation Status
The sand cat is not well studied. Because they live in such vast, desert locations, it is hard to track the true number of individuals. This species is listed as Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) according to the IUCN. Their major threats are habitat loss and degradation. Human induced desertification can affect this desert dwelling species and their prey. Appendix II means that the species is not currently threatened by extinction, but could be if not monitored. They are listed as “near threatened” according to the IUCN World Conservation Union. According to the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the subspecies Felis margarita scheffeli from Pakistan is listed as endangered.
US Federal List: endangered
CITES: appendix ii
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened
- International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 2004. "Species Information Felis margarita" (On-line). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed February 02, 2004 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php?species=8541.
- 2004. "The CITES Appendices" (On-line). CITES. Accessed February 02, 2004 at http://www.cites.org/eng/append/index.shtml.
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Status
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Trends
Population
Population Trend
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Threats
Threats
Other localized threats include the introduction of feral and domestic dogs and cats, creating direct competition and through predation and disease transmission (Nowell and Jackson 1996). They also may be killed in traps laid out by inhabitants of oases targeting foxes and jackals or in retaliation for killing their chickens (De Smet 1989; Dragesco-Joffé 1993). There are occasional reports of animals shot in south-east Arabia (M. Strauss pers. comm.).
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Threats
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Management
Conservation Actions
There is a need for more fine-scale distribution studies and estimates of home range and density.
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Conservation
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Perhaps because of its relatively small numbers, this species has not had negative impacts upon humans.
Negative Impacts: causes or carries domestic animal disease
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
The sand cat is part of the illegal pet trade. Researchers have sparked an interest in further studies of this species.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; research and education
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Wikipedia
Sand cat
The sand cat (Felis margarita), also known as the sand dune cat, is the only felid found primarily in true desert, and has a wide but apparently disjunct distribution through the deserts of northern Africa and southwest and central Asia. Since 2002 this small cat has been listed as Near Threatened by IUCN due to concern over potential low population size and decline.[2]
The sand cat lives in arid areas that are too hot and dry even for the African Wildcat: the Sahara, the Arabian Desert, and the deserts of Iran and Pakistan.
Victor Loche was the first European who described the sand cat in 1858. He named the species Felis margarita after Jean Auguste Margueritte, the leader of the expedition during which he had encountered the animal.[3]
Contents |
Characteristics
The sand cat is a relatively small, stocky cat with short legs, a long tail, and large, pointed ears. They range from 39 to 57 centimetres (15 to 22 in) in length, plus a 23 to 31 centimetres (9.1 to 12 in) tail, and weigh from 1.4 to 3.4 kilograms (3.1 to 7.5 lb).[4] The head is conspicuously broad, and the ears are so widely spaced that they can be flattened horizontally, or even pointed down to aid in hunting.
The color of the fur is a pale sandy yellow over most of the body, with pallid bars which are sometimes hardly visible, and is white on the chin and underside. Generally the bars are more visible in the African subspecies. There are black bands on the legs and tail, and reddish lines running across the cheeks from the outer corners of the eyes. In winter, the coat can be very thick, with the hairs reaching up to 2 inches (5.1 cm) in length. The eyes are large and greenish yellow in color, while the nose is black.[4]
Unusually among Asian cats, the sand cat has long hairs growing between its toes. These create a cushion of fur over the foot pads, helping to insulate them while moving over hot sand. The claws on the hind feet are small and blunt; combined with the fur over the foot pads, this helps to make the animal's tracks obscure and difficult to follow.[4]
The mucosa of their eyelids is a striking black. Accompanying the large ears, the auditory bullae are also unusually large, giving the cat an enhanced sense of hearing, probably helping it to pick up vibrations in the sand. Similar adaptations are found in other desert animals, such as the fennec fox.
Distribution and habitat
Sand cats are found primarily in both sandy and stony desert, and have a wide but apparently disjunct distribution through the deserts of northern Africa and southwest and central Asia.[5] They prefer flat or undulating terrain with sparse vegetation, avoiding bare sand dunes, where there is relatively little food. They can survive in temperatures ranging from −5 °C (23 °F) to 52 °C (126 °F), retreating into burrows during extreme conditions. Although they will drink when water is available, they are able to survive for months on the water in their food.[4]
Distribution of subspecies
Subsequent to Loche’s first description of a sand cat from Algeria, several subspecies have been described, of which the following are recognized today:[1]
- Felis margarita margarita (Loche 1858) − ranges from Algeria southwards to Asben in northern Nigeria, Sinai and Arabia;[6]
- Felis margarita thinobius (Ognev 1926) − ranges from the Karakum Desert to the southeast of Krasnovodsk and southern Kizilkum to the west of Bokhara in Russian Turkestan and in the Transcaspian area to Repetek;[6]
- Felis margarita meinertzhageni (Pocock 1938) − lives in the Algerian Sahara;[6]
- Felis margarita airensis (Pocock 1938) − is distributed in Sudan;[7]
- Felis margarita scheffeli (Hemmer, 1974) − lives in the Nushki desert of Pakistan;[8]
- Felis margarita harrisoni (Hemmer, Grubb and Groves, 1976) − ranges in the Arabian Peninsula.[5]
Ecology and behavior
Sand cats live solitary lives outside of the mating season. They inhabit burrows, typically using either abandoned fox or porcupine burrows, or enlarging those dug by gerbils or other rodents. The completed burrow is generally straight, with a single entrance, and reaching up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) in length. They communicate using scent and claw marks on objects in their range, and by urine spraying, although they do not leave their feces in exposed locations as many other felids do. They make vocalizations similar to domestic cats, but also make loud, high-pitched barking sounds, especially when seeking a mate. They come out after dusk to hunt rodents, lizards, birds, and insects, although their diet may consist mostly of rodents.[4]
They "skulk" close to the ground and will use any available cover to protect themselves. Using their large ears they listen for prey, digging rapidly when they hear it underground. Since the sand cat obtains all the water it needs from eating its prey, it mostly stays far away from watering points where other predators may harm it.
Sand cats have been recorded to move long distances of 5–10 km (3.1–6.2 mi) in a single night, and a radio telemetry study in Israel suggests large home ranges, with one male using an area of 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi).[9]
Sand cats congregate only for mating, so counting them is a difficult task. It seems however that their numbers have been declining in the Arabian desert following a decrease in their prey. They have been observed to travel from 5 to 10 kilometres (3.1 to 6.2 mi) per night in search of prey, but, unlike most other cats, do not defend their territories, and may even "take turns" over burrows.
Reproduction and life cycle
Oestrus in sand cats lasts from five to six days, and is accompanied by calling and increased scent marking. An average litter of three kittens is born after 59 to 66 days, typically around April or May, although, in some areas, sand cats may give birth to two litters per year. The kittens weigh 39 to 80 grams (1.4 to 2.8 oz) at birth, with spotted pale yellow or reddish fur. They grow relatively rapidly, reaching three quarters of the adult size within five months of birth. Sand cats are fully independent by the end of their first year, and reach sexual maturity not long after.[10]
Of 228 sand cats born in zoos globally to the year 2007 only 61% lived to day 30. They died primarily due to maternal neglect of first time mothers. They can live up to 13 years in captivity.[11]
Little is known about the life expectancy of sand cats in the wild.[citation needed]
Threats
Habitat degradation is the major threat to the sand cat. Vulnerable arid ecosystems are being rapidly degraded by human settlement and activity, especially livestock grazing. The sand cat's small mammal prey base depends on having adequate vegetation, and may experience large fluctuations due to drought, or declines due to desertification and loss of natural vegetation. They also may be killed in traps laid out by inhabitants of oases targeting foxes and jackals or in retaliation for killing their chickens. There are occasional reports of animals shot in south-east Arabia.[2] Other localized threats include the introduction of feral and domestic dogs and cats, creating direct competition and through predation and disease transmission.[12]
Conservation
Felis margarita is listed on CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Algeria, Iran, Israel, Kazakhstan, Mauritania, Niger, Pakistan and Tunisia. No legal protection exists in Egypt, Mali, Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates.[12]
The extirpation of the sand cat from Israel – along with the fact that the cat is threatened throughout its range – led the Jerusalem Zoo to begin a reintroduction project for the species. An acclimatization enclosure was built, using money from the Zoo's Prof. Shulov Fund for the Study of Animals in Captivity, at Kibbutz Lotan's Bird Reserve in the Arava Desert. Following construction of the enclosure, the first individuals were transferred for acclimatization, and shortly afterwards were released into the wild. The tracking of these cats after their release was conducted by the Creative Ecology staff at Kibbutz Lotan, and by Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority (INNPPA) rangers. The reintroduction programme was deemed unsuccessful, as the animals did not survive. [13]
In captivity
Captive sand cats are highly sensitive to respiratory diseases and infection of the upper respiratory tract is the main cause of death in adults. The most common disease is infectious rhinotracheitis. With the sand cat being very susceptible to respiratory infections they have to be kept in very arid enclosures where humidity and temperature do not fluctuate. [11]
As of January 20, 2010, there are 26 sand cats in captivity in the United States.[14] In May 2010, the Al Ain Wildlife Park & Resort (AWPR) announced the first-ever captive birth of two sand cat kittens following an in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer procedure at its facilities.[15]
References
- ^ a b Wozencraft, W. Christopher (16 November 2005). "Order Carnivora (pp. 532-628)". In Wilson, Don E., and Reeder, DeeAnn M., eds. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2 vols. (2142 pp.). pp. 536. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=14000047.
- ^ a b c Mallon, D.P., Sliwa, A., Strauss, M. (2011). "Felis margarita". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/8541.
- ^ Loche, V. (1858). Description d'une nouvelle espèce de Chat par M. le capitaine Loche. Revue et Magasin de Zoologie Pure et Appliquée, Series 2 vol X: 49–50.
- ^ a b c d e Sunquist, Mel; Sunquist, Fiona (2002). Wild cats of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 67–74. ISBN 0-226-77999-8.
- ^ a b Hemmer, H., Grubb, P. and C.P. Groves. (1976). Notes on the sand cat, Felis margarita Loche 1958. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 41: 286−303.
- ^ a b c Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946. Second edition. British Museum of Natural History, London. Pp. 306–307.
- ^ Pocock, R. I. (1951). Catalogue of the genus Felis. British Museum (Natural History), London, 190 pp.
- ^ Hemmer, H. (1974). [Studies on the systematics and biology of the sand cat.] Zeitschrift des Kölner Zoo 17(1):11−20 (in German).
- ^ Abbadi, M. (1992). Israel's elusive feline: sand cats. Cat News 18: 15−16.
- ^ Mellen, J.D. (1993). "A comparative analysis of scent marking, social and reproductive behavior in 20 species of small cats (Felis)". American Zoologist 33: 151–166. doi:10.1093/icb/33.2.151.
- ^ a b Sausman, K. (2007). "Sand cat a true desert species". International Zoo Yearbook 35: 78–81.
- ^ a b Nowell, K. and Jackson, P. (1996). Sand Cat Felis margarita. in: Wild Cats. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.
- ^ Jerusalem Biblical Zoo – Re-introduction – Sand cats. Jerusalemzoo.org.il. Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ Sand cat pair at Al Ain Wildlife Park and Resort. Khaleejtimes.com. Retrieved on 2011-09-27.
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Unreviewed
