The native range of this species is from southeast Alaska to Washington, western Montana, and central Idaho. Mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus, are native to the northern Rocky Mountains. They have also been introduced to parts of South Dakota, Colorado, and Washington.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced , Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: Mountains of northwestern North America from southeast Alaska to Washington, western Montana and southern Idaho. Introduced in Colorado, Oregon, Olympic Peninsula of Washington, and South Dakota.

Mountain goats are stout-bodied with a thick coat made up of white hairs with some brown intermixed dorsally. The pure black horns are about 200 to 300 mm long, rather thin, and present on both sexes. They do not shed these horns--annual growth rings increase the horn size. In this way, the age of the goat can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings. The male's horn, however, curves back greater than the females. Mountain goats have relatively large, oval hooves with an almost rubber-like sole that aids them in climbing steep rock. They have black scent glands between their horns. The body size of a male and female are similar until 3 years of age. After 3 years of age males are usually 7.5 to 15 cm taller than females. Male mountain goats usually weigh between 61.4 to 81.8 kg and females 56.8 to 70.5 kg.

Range mass: 56.8 to 81.8 kg.

Range length: 1245 to 1787 mm.

Average basal metabolic rate: no information found cm^3 oxygen/hour.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes shaped differently; ornamentation

Average basal metabolic rate: 46.414 W.

Length: 179 cm

Weight: 136000 grams

• Terrestrial

Mountain goats prefer steep, rocky areas with cliffs or bluffs in alpine or sub-alpine regions. They prefer areas with sufficient escape terrain (steep rocky areas), moderate slopes, mid-elevations, and southern exposures. They migrate between lowland winter areas and high elevation summer ranges.

Range elevation: 1,000 to 5,000 m.

Average elevation: 2,300 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: mountains

Comments: Alpine and subalpine habitat; steep grassy talus slopes, grassy ledges of cliffs, or alpine meadows. Usually at timberline or above. May seek shelter and food in stands of spruce or hemlock in winter. Young are born on rock ledges or steep cliffs.

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

In some locations may migrate up and down mountains between summer and winter activity areas (Rideout and Hoffmann 1975); in Montana, summer and winter ranges were a maximum of 2.2 km apart (Singer and Doherty 1985). May travel some distance to salt licks in spring and summer.

Although their diet varies throughout the year, it generally consists of grasses, woody plants, mosses, lichens, herbaceous plants, and other vegetation. They get most of their water from their food and year-round snowbanks. Mountain goats also travel many kilometers in the spring to mineral-rich salt licks.

Plant Foods: leaves; wood, bark, or stems; bryophytes; lichens

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Lignivore)

Comments: Grazes on grasses and forbs in summer, also browses shrubs and conifers. Winter diet often variable; may feed on mosses and lichens, as well as grasses, shrubs and conifers.

Ectoparasites that have been found on mountain goats are Dermacentor andersoni (a tick), and a chewing louse, Bovicola oreamnidis. Endoparasites that have been known to affect mountain goats are three species of cestodes: Moniezia benedeni, Thysanosoma actinioides, and Taenia hydatigena. Also 11 species of nematodes: Protostrongylus stilesi, Protostrongylus rushi (both were found on the lungs), Ostertagia circumcincta, O. ostertagi, O. trifurcata, Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Trichostrongylus axei, Nematodirus maculosus and N. helvetianus (the latter 2 found in the small intestines). Also tapeworms seem to be an endoparasite that have affected goats in South Dakota.

Ecosystem Impact: keystone species

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Dermacentor andersoni
• Bovicola oreamnidis
• Moniezia benedeni
• Thysanosoma actinioides
• Taenia hydatigena
• Protostrongylus stilesi
• Protostrongylus rushi
• Ostertagia circumcincta
• Ostertagia ostertagi
• Ostertagia trifurcata
• Trichostrongylus colubriformis
• Trichostrongylus axei
• Nematodirus maculosus
• Nematodirus helvetianus

The mountain goat's main predators are cougars (Puma concolor). The cougar is versatile enough to move around on the mountains and it is big enough to hunt and kill an adult mountain goat. Bears (Ursus species) may rarely catch a goat when they are on the ground, but if the goats stay on the mountain, it would be extremely difficult for the bear to catch it. Eagles occasionally swoop down and carry off newborns. Wolves (Canis lupus) have been known to also attack mountain goats. In July and August of 1995, one wolf killed a yearling female. However, soon after that incident a adult female successfully defended her kid from an adult wolf. This aggressive defense is rare--a study in 2006 noted just 5 occasions in which mothers defended their kids.

Known Predators:

• cougars (Puma concolor)
• grizzly bears (Ursus arctos)
• wolves (Canis lupus)
• golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos)
• coyotes (Canis latrans)
• black bears (Ursus americanus)
• bobcats (Lynx rufus)

Adult females and young may form small groups in summer. Males often solitary (sometimes in male groups), join female groups in fall. Annual home range in different areas of Montana was 6-24 sq km (Singer and Doherty 1985).

In Alberta, survival of young to 1 year averaged 60%; most deaths occurred in fall; predation by mountain lions, wolves, and grizzly bears was a major source of mortality (Festa-Bianchet et al. 1994).

Mountain goats communicate through vocalitizations during the mating season to attract mates. They display a high frequency of intraspecific aggression. Aggressive behaviors include present threat (a broadside orientation with apparent size enhancement by arching their backs), horn threat (aggressive movement and display of the horns), rush threat (a sudden quick movement toward the antagonist), and orientation threat (a lower intensity form of rush threat involving walking). All of these are examples of bluffing aggression, as individuals rarely suffer serious injuries.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile

Other Communication Modes: scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Most active from dawn to mid-morning and from late afternoon to evening.

Mountain goats typically live until their teeth have been worn completely down--on average, 12 to 15 years in the wild and 16 to 20 years in captivity. This age can be determined by the number of annual growth rings on the interior of the horns. Most goats, however, do not survive more than 12 years. The oldest reported male and female were 15.5 and 18 years old, respectively.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 18 (high) years.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 12 to 15 years.

Typical lifespan

Status: captivity: 16 to 20 years.

Prior to and during the breeding season, males compete for females. The do not fight head-to-head but rather stand side-by-side and stab at each other's flanks. Thick skin in this area protects them from serious damage, but deaths have been reported and are usually associated with wounds to the chest, neck, or abdomen.

Courtship begins in September when males attempt to join small bands of females (alone or in pairs). Males tend to be easier to distinguish at this point, as their coats are dirtier--caused by the action of digging a rutting pit. Male courtship behavior involves a low approach to the female, showing the broad side of the face and beard, licking the female's coat, and kicking the female's flanks. In late October, the females finally accept the courtship of males; these males become part of a "nursery band." These include a female, her young, and any males who have joined in the pre-rut season. Males will typically attempt to prevent other males from copulating with any female (including non-estrous females) when in the nursery band.

Mating System: polygynous

Mountain goat breeding season begins in late November and lasts until early January. Gestation is about 150 to 180 days and 1 to 3 kids are born in May to June. The female gives birth on very steep cliffs in her home range to avoid predators. The young are mobile shortly after birth. The young are weaned after 3 to 4 months and stay with the mother until she gives birth the following year. Sexual maturity is reached after 30 months in both sexes, although Cote and Festa-Bianchet (2001) found that kid production was highest among female goats at 8 to 9 years of age. These authors also found that age and social rank were positively correlated, so older females of a higher social rank tend to produce more offspring than lower-ranked, younger females.

Breeding interval: Oreamnos americanus breed once a year in late fall and early winter.

Breeding season: Breeding is from late October through November.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 3.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 147 (low) days.

Average gestation period: 185.8 days.

Range weaning age: 90 to 120 days.

Average time to independence: 9 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.5 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.5 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Average birth mass: 3200 g.

Average number of offspring: 1.2.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

Sex: male: 912 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 912 days.

Kids stay with their mother until weaned, from 90 to 120 days old. Following weaning, kids typically stay with the mother until another is born, at which point the mother chases away the yearling. Males aid in the protection of young when they are a part of a nursery band; otherwise the mother is the main source of protection.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents

Rut takes place in November. Gestation lasts about 178 days (Banfield 1974). One (sometimes 2, occasionally 3) precocial kids born late May or early June. In Washington and Colorado, sexually mature in about 2 years, though in some areas some yearling females may breed. In Alberta, females produced their first young at 4-5 years; about 70-80% of adult females produced young in a given year (Festa-Bianchet et al. 1994). See Bailey (1991) for information on factors that affect reproductive success in Colorado.

The feet of mountain goats maintain traction when climbing using cloven hooves with a hard outer shell and soft, flexible inner pads, as well as slip-stopping dewclaws.

Because the number of mountain goats has been relatively stable, they are not in any danger of extinction. Some areas, like Yellowstone National Park, have allowed hunters to hunt under controlled conditions to reduce the number of mountain goats. Hunting is not allowed in any places where mountain goats are declining in number, like Cascade Mountains of Washington. Goats in this region are being tagged with GPS collars to track their progress, and find out why their numbers are slowly declining.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: no special status

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N4 - Apparently Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Management Requirements: In Olympic Natl. Park, removal of goats at levels approaching production of young resulted in dramatic decline in population (Houston and Stevens 1988). See Carlquist (1990), Houston et al. (1991), and Crawford (1993) for information on recent population management/goat removal at Olympic National Park. See Hoffman and Wright (1990) for information on successful but expensive method of fertility control that could be useful in situations where population control through other means is not feasible.

It has been reported that in places of high mountain goat populations, they cause destruction to plant populations native to that region. This has become a big concern at Olympic and Yellowstone National Parks. Mountain goats are not native to those areas, and are considered an exotic species there. Like other exotic species there is concern about mountain goats bringing in new diseases that will infect native organisms from these areas.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (causes disease in humans )

Mountain goat hunting is very challenging due to the habitat the goats inhabit.

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material

Species Impact: Introduced population in Olympic National Park, Washington, is regarded as a negative influence (causes change in native plant communities through grazing and trampling, increases erosion around trails and wallows) (Hoffman and Wright 1990).

Comments: See Georgiadis et al. (1991) for a phylogeny of the Bovidae based on allozyme divergence among 27 species. See Kraus and Miyamoto (1991) for a phylogenetic analysis of pecoran ruminants (Cervidae, Bovidae, Moschidae, Antilocapridae, and Giraffidae) based on mitochondrial DNA data.