Mirounga leonina (southern elephant seals) are found along the coast of Antarctica and on sub-Antarctic islands when breeding or molting. However, before human exploitation they were more common farther north. The largest present population occurs on the island of South Georgia, in the South Atlantic Ocean. Southern elephant seals are also common on Macquarie Island, Heard Island, Kerguelen Island, and the Peninsula Valdez in Argentina. When at sea, M. leonina often journey thousands of miles from their breeding grounds. Despite the occasional sighting, not much is known about their range outside of the breeding season.

Biogeographic Regions: antarctica (Native ); oceanic islands (Native ); indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

Male southern elephant seals are the largest pinnipeds, larger even than northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris, their closest relatives. Mirounga leonina males have been documented reaching over six meters long and weighing over 4000 kg. This is in sharp contrast to females, which are rarely over 800 kg or four meters long. In fact, both species of the genus Mirounga are more sexually dimorphic than any other mammal. This dimorphism stretches beyond just size. Males also have a large, inflatable proboscis, which enhances vocalizations used to challenge other males for mating rights. The southern elephant seal proboscis is slightly smaller than the proboscis of northern elephant seals, overhanging the mouth by only about 10 centimeters compared to 30 centimeters in their northern relatives.

Breeding populations vary in size. In the South Georgian population, males average 450 cm in length and weigh 4,000 kg. Females average 280 cm and weigh 900 kg. The seals from Macquarie Island population are somewhat smaller, with males averaging 420 cm in length and 3,000 kg and females averaging 260 cm and 400 kg.

Despite the large difference in size, male and female southern elephant seals do share many physical traits. They have a similar body type. This includes short front flippers used primarily for steering in the water, and very strong, fully webbed, rear flippers that can propel them through the water with remarkable speed and agility. They also have a layer of short, stiff hair covering their bodies. At birth this fur is very dark in color, but lightens after the first molt. New fur after a molt is typically a dark gray/brown with lighter underside and lightens over the course of the year. It is also common for the bodies of both sexes to have scars, usually around the neck, from fighting and mating.

Range mass: 300 to 4000 kg.

Average mass: 2000 (male) 500 (female) kg.

Range length: 260 to 600 cm.

Average length: 500 (male) 300 (female) cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes shaped differently; ornamentation

• Marine

When southern elephant seals are on land, they are typically found along the coast of sub-Antarctic islands on smooth beaches of sand or small rocks. Although they used to breed well into temperate regions, M. leonina are now only found farther south. They are found on land during the breeding season, from August to November, and the molting season, which lasts 3 to 5 weeks in the spring. The rest of the year is spent entirely at sea. During this time they can be found from sub-Antarctic waters to almost as far north as the equator, often venturing thousands of kilometers from their breeding grounds. While males typically forage on the Antarctic continental shelf, females travel farther into open waters. During their time at sea, southern elephant seals can sustain dives for up to two hours, but most dives last only around thirty minutes. Amazingly, they only spend 2 to 3 minutes on the surface between dives. During most trips at sea, they are underwater for 90% of the time, day and night. While most dives are only between 300 and 800 m, dives of over 1500 m have been recorded, nearing depths only surpassed in mammals by sperm whales.

Range depth: 1500+ to surface m.

Average depth: 300-800 m.

Habitat Regions: polar ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: pelagic ; coastal

Other Habitat Features: intertidal or littoral

Southern elephant seals feed exclusively when they are at sea. For this reason not much is known about what they eat. The main known sources of food are squid, crabs, shrimp, fish, and sharks. This prey is obtained both near the surface and also during very deep dives. They have been known to eat bottom dwelling fish.

Animal Foods: fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats non-insect arthropods, Molluscivore )

Not much is known of the roles of southern elephant seals while they are at sea. However, they are known to be important to their ecosystem as predators of fish, sharks, squid, crabs, and shrimp and as prey for large sharks, killer whales, and leopard seals. Another important role they play in the ecosystem is as a host for many kinds of parasites. Some of the known parasites include tapeworms, acanthocephalans, and the louse Lepidophthirus macrorhini.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• tapeworms
• acanthocephalans
• the louse Lepidophthirus macrorhini 

Knowledge of predation of M. leonina is limited due to their deep ocean habitat. Known predators include large sharks, specifically great white sharks, and killer whales. Leopard seals are also known to prey on pups. In order to avoid predation, southern elephant seals have dark dorsal surfaces with lighter undersides. This allows some camouflage by blending in with the lighter water when viewed from below and the darker water when seen from above.

Known Predators:

• large sharks, specifically great white shark 
• killer whale
• leopard seal

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

When at sea, Mirounga leonina rarely encounter each other and thus have no need for communication. The only time communication is used is during breeding. Males use their large proboscis as a sound chamber for amplifying their bellows. These sounds are made to establish territories and challenge males for established harems. Upright posturing often accompanies these vocalizations and males are known to visually assess their competitor before fighting. Lesser males will also exhibit a flattened posture without inflating their proboscis when near another male’s harem to demonstrate that they are not threats.

A threat vocalization is a low-pitched harsh vocalization. While the seal is doing this it will raise its head and forequarters off of the ground, supporting itself without fore flippers. A lunge from an animal is a rapid movement of the head towards an opponent or invader. This is done with an open mouth. A high rear is the raising of the front half of the body then delivering blows to another animal with the neck or chin. A bite may also be used, mainly from a low rear or a high rear position.

Females are known to communicate with newborn pups through vocalizations. Females and pups recognize each other through these vocal cues and through their individual smells.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

There is little known about lifespan in southern elephant seals. This is largely due to the lack of substantial information concerning the periods of the year when they are at sea. Average life expectancy in the wild, as seen during the breeding season, is about 23 years. However, about 30% of pups die in their first year. Captive M. leonina have lived to 15 years of age. Not much is known concerning the deaths of these mammals but, in addition to predation, weather and disease may play a large role in limiting their lifespan.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 15 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 23 years.

Average lifespan

Sex: male

Status: wild: 20.0 years.

Average lifespan

Sex: female

Status: wild: 18.0 years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 23.0 years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 20.0 years.

Male southern elephant seals arrive at breeding grounds several weeks before females and, through vocalizations, body positions, and occasional fighting, claim territories on the beach. The best and largest territories go to the largest and strongest males. These “alpha” males become the head of a harem when the females arrive, often mating with up to 60 females in their harem. If harems exceed this size, additional “beta” males may be present, each claiming as many females as they can. Females become a part of a harem simply through their position on the beach and may move from one harem to another incidentally.

In addition to their mating duties, alpha males are responsible for keeping unwanted males away from the harems. This is done through the same vocalizations and aggressive body postures that were used originally to claim their harem. Males must remain on their territory to defend it and, therefore, go for periods of months without eating. This, and the stress of aggressive encounters with other males and the energy expense of mating with multiple females, can take a significant toll on male physical condition. Only males in the best physical condition at the beginning of breeding season will successfully defend their territory and breed with multiple females. Subordinate males attempt to copulate with females on the edges of territories or in the surf as they leave the beach.

Females that were pregnant from the previous year’s mating give birth to one pup shortly after arriving on land. A period of lactation follows the birth. Then, several days before the pups are weaned from their mother’s milk, females enter estrus and mate with the alpha male or a successful beta male. Shortly following mating, males return to sea. Females return to the sea immediately after the pups are weaned.

Mating System: polygynous

Once a year, from August to November, southern elephant seals return to land to breed. Amazingly, most return to the very same breeding grounds on which they were born. Five to seven days after pregnant females arrive on the beaches, they give birth to one pup. Occasionally twin pups are born but one typically dies soon afterwards. The mothers then nurse their young for about 23 days. Females may nurse longer if their energy reserves allow them to do so. During their time on the breeding grounds females eat little or not at all. Towards the end of this time, females enter estrus and mate with a male. Shortly after mating, females wean their young. At this point, they abandon their young and return to the ocean. Pups then forage on their own for several weeks before venturing out to sea in small groups. Female southern elephant seals typically reach sexual maturity by the age of 3 and participate in the annual breeding cycle by age 6. Males reach sexual maturity by age 5 or 6, but rarely are developed enough to compete for mates until they reach 10 to 12 years of age. The gestation period of female M. leonina is about eight months. There is a period of several weeks during late October when all mature females mate. In order to maintain the yearly birthing cycle with an eight-month gestation period, there is delayed implantation of the fertilized egg for about three months. After the three-month delay, the egg implants and begins to develop to become mature enough for birth during the next breeding season.

Breeding interval: Southern elephant seals mate once each year.

Breeding season: Breeding season lasts from August to November.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 9 to 7 months.

Range weaning age: 20 to 35 days.

Average weaning age: 23 days.

Range time to independence: 20 to 25 days.

Average time to independence: 23 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 4 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 5 to 6 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 6 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous ; delayed implantation

Average birth mass: 42500 g.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Female southern elephant seals are the sole caregivers for their young from the moment of conception until weaning, a period that lasts around one year. After delayed implantation, which follows mating, the nine-month gestation period of the pregnancy begins. During this time, the pup develops inside the mother as she is diving and feeding in sub-Antarctic waters. Shortly after coming to land, females give birth to their pups, typically weighing between 25 and 50 kg at birth. Following birth, mothers bond vocally and through smell with their pup. For the next 20 to 25 days (sometimes as long as 35 days) mothers are responsible for providing milk and protecting pups. Mothers are typically less than one-meter from their pups during the stage of suckling, regardless of tide, the position in the harem, or the time in the breeding season. A pup might get separated from its mother due to male harassment and herding of females. This can result in an abandoned pup. Once a pup is separated from its mother the results are fatal. Alien suckling (nursing between unrelated cows and pups) isn't tolerated in this species. If an orphan pup attempts to steal milk from a sleeping or resting cow, it usually is bitten and will succumb to starvation or the effects of the bites. The most dire threat to young pups is adult males who crush pups as they travel and fight on beach territories. During lactation, mothers do not return to the water to feed and instead live on fat reserves built up during the previous foraging season. At weaning pups weigh from 120 to 130 kg, a weight gain of as much as 105 kg in a few weeks!

Immediately following weaning, female southern elephant seals return to sea, leaving their pups alone on the beach. Eventually the pups begin to get hungry and find their way to the ocean, learning to feed and swim on their own. After weaning, there is no interaction between parents and pups. Approximately 30% of these pups will not live through their first year.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; precocial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

The proboscis of the male elephant seal amplifies calls by bulging using a combination of air, blood, and muscle.

Although once hunted by humans, southern elephant seals were never near extinction like northern elephant seals. This is largely because most of the breeding grounds of M. leonina were out of reach of hunting boats. Hunting did have some impact, but numbers have recovered since hunting has ceased. Some populations are are experiencing declines. This may be normal population fluctuations, however.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Southern elephant seals may occasionally compete with some fisheries, but this is unlikely. Southern elephant seals live in remote regions where they have few interactions with humans.

In the past, southern elephant seals were hunted for their blubber that was boiled down into oil. A typical male could produce about 350 liters of oil. Some aboriginal people also hunted them for food and skins. This activity has ceased and killing is now controlled by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals. The only use of M. leonina to man today is for purely scientific purposes.

Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; research and education