Major populations of Canadian lynx, Lynx canadensis, are found throughout Canada, in western Montana, and in nearby parts of Idaho and Washington. There are small populations in New England and Utah and possibly in Oregon, Wyoming and Colorado as well.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Throughout Alaska and Canada (except arctic islands) south through the Rocky Mountains, northern Great Lakes region, and northern New England. Also northern Eurasia if regarded as conspecific with Lynx lynx (=Felis lynx). See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1998) for information on distribution and relative abundance in the contiguous U.S. Considered historically resident in 16 states represented by five ecologically distinct regions: Cascade Range (Washington, Oregon), northern Rocky Mountains (northeastern Washington, southeastern Oregon, Idaho, Montana, western Wyoming, northern Utah), southern Rocky Mountains (southeastern Wyoming, Colorado), northern Great Lakes (Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan ), and northern New England (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts). Resident populations currently exist only in Maine, Montana, Washington, and possibly Minnesota; considered extant but no longer sustaining self-support populations in Wisconsin, Michigan, Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado; may be extirpated from New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). See Stardom (1988 COSEWIC report) for information on distribution and relative abundance in Canada, where still widespread and relatively abundant in most of historic range. See USFWS (2000) for a state-by-state review of historical and current distribution.

The coloration of lynx varies, but is normally yellowish-brown. The upper parts may have a frosted, gray look and the underside may be more buff. Many individuals have dark spots. The tail is quite short and is often ringed and tipped with black. The fur on the body is long and thick. The hair is particularly long on the neck in winter. The triangular ears are tipped with tufts of long black hairs. The paws are quite large and furry, helping to distribute the weight of the animal when moving on snow.

Head-body length is between 670 and 1,067 mm and tail length ranges from 50 to 130 mm. Amimals typically weigh between 4.5 and 17.3 kg. On average, males weigh slightly more than females.

Range mass: 4.5 to 17.3 kg.

Range length: 670 to 1,067 mm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Length: 107 cm

Weight: 18100 grams

• Terrestrial

Lynx usually live in mature forests with dense undergrowth but can also be found in more open forests, rocky areas or tundra.

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; forest

Comments: Generally occurs in boreal and montane regions dominated by coniferous or mixed forest with thick undergrowth, but also sometimes enters open forest, rocky areas, and tundra to forage for abundant prey. When inactive or birthing, occupies den typically in hollow tree, under stump, or in thick brush. Den sites tend to be in mature or old growth stands with a high density of logs (Koehler 1990, Koehler and Brittell 1990).

U.S. Forest Service et al. (1993) listed three primary habitat components for lynx in the Pacific Northwest: (1) foraging habitat (15-35-year-old lodgepole pine) to support snowshoe hare and provide hunting cover, (2) denning sites (patches of >200-year-old spruce and fir, generally less than 5 acres, and (3) dispersal/travel cover (variable in vegetation composition and structure).

Major limiting factor is abundance of snowshoe hare, which in turn is limited by availability of winter habitat (in the Pacific Northwest, primarily early successional lodgepole pine with trees at least 6 feet tall) (U.S. Forest Service et al. 1993).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Canadian lynx are strictly carnivores. Snowshoe hares are of particular importance in the diet of these cats, and populations of the two are known to fluctuate in linked cycles with periods of about 9.6 years. In these cycles, there is a slight lag between hare and lynx populations. Although in some areas, such as Cape Breton Island, lynx prey exclusively on hares, in other areas they also take rodents, birds and fish.

In the fall and winter, lynx will kill and eat deer and other large ungulates that are weakened by the rutting season. They also utilize carcasses left by human hunters.

Canadian lynx only eat meat. Snowshoe hares are a very important food for these cats, and when there are fewer hares to eat, the number of lynx decreases. In some areas, such as Cape Breton Island, lynx eat only hares, but in other areas they also feast on rodents, birds and fish. If they can find a deer that is very weak or sick, lynx will kill and eat it. They also feed off carcasses left by human hunters.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; fish; carrion

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)

Comments: Eats primarily small mammals and birds, particularly Lepus americanus. Occasionally feeds on squirrels, small mammals, beaver, deer, moose, muskrat, and birds; some taken as carrion. May cache food for later use.

As predators, Canadian lynx are important in regulating the populations of their prey. This is particularly noticeable in the cycle of populations of lynx and snowshoe hares.

Predators of these cats have not been reported. However, one can assume that young kittens are vulnerable to other large carnivores, such as wolves and bears.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Unknown, but numerous--Nearctic (or Holarctic) distribution.

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Total population size is unknown, but it varies cyclically with availability of food; total probably is at least in the hundreds of thousands during population peaks, based on annual harvests in Canada that periodically exceed 50,000 (Nowak 1991). British Columbia population was estimated to vary between 200,000 and 250,000 (Goodchild and Munro 1980). See Stardom (1988 COSEWIC report) for information on status in Canada. In the contiguous U.S., total population size is unknown, but probably less than 2,000. Colorado: only 18 positive recordrds; none since 1973; proposing to reintroduce lynx (Colorado Division of Wildlife 1997). Idaho: less than 100 individuals (C. Harris, pers. comm., 1997). Maine: less than 200 individuals (C. McLaughlin, pers. comm., 1997). Oregon: perhaps fewer than 75 individuals (E. Gaines, pers. comm., 1997). Utah: very rare, few if any extant occurrences (G. Oliver, pers. comm., 1997). Montana: 740-1040 individuals (B. Giddings, pers. comm., 1998). Washington: 72-191 individuals (Washington Department of Wildlife 1993, Washington Department of Natural Resources 1996). Wyoming: less than 100 individuals (B. Oakleaf, pers. comm., 1998). Periodic increases in lynx numbers may be accentuated by dispersal of transient animals from Canadian populations (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). It has been suggested that, because lynx occurrence throughout much of the continguous U.S. is on the southern periphery of the species' range, the presence of lynx is solely a consequence of dispersal from Canada and that most of the U.S. may never have supported self-sustaining, resident populations over time (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998).

Home range increases, and individuals may become nomadic, when prey is scarce (Ward and Krebs 1985, Saunders 1963, Mech 1980). Range of male (average often about 15-30 sq km, but up to hundreds of sq km in Alaska and Minnesota) is larger than that of female. Spatial organization observed prior to low hare densities in Northwest Territories may be described as a land-tenure system, based on prior residency, and may have served to regulate density during peak prey levels (Poole 1995). Long distance dispersal movements of up to several hundred kilometers have been recorded.

Population density usually is less than 10 (locally up to 20) per 100 sq km, depending on prey availability. Mean densities range between 2 and 9 per 100 sq km (McCord and Cardoza 1982).

Usually solitary.

Communication and perception are probably similar to that of other cats. In addition to having good vision to facilitate hunting, these animals have excellent hearing. Scents are probably used in marking territories. Tactile communication is likely to occur between mates, as well as between mothers and their offspring. Communication through vocalizations occurs as well.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Mainly nocturnal. Most active from 2 hours after sunset to one hour after sunrise (Banfield 1974).

In the wild, lynx have lived as long as 14.5 years. In captivity, lifespans of 26.75 years have been recorded.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 14.5 (high) years.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 26.75 (high) years.

The mating system of these animals is not reported. However, female home ranges are usually encompassed by the home range of a male, and the home ranges of multiple females may overlap. This distribution, in conjuction with the slight sexual dimorphism, indicate that the species is probably polygynous.

Females enter estrus only once per year and raise one litter per year. Estrus lasts 1 to 2 days. Mating in February and March is folowed by a gestation period of from 8 to 10 weeks. Litters typically have 2 or 3 kittens, though the number may range from 1 to 5. Lynx weigh about 200 g at birth. Lactation lasts for 5 months, although kittens eat some meat as early as one month of age.

Males do not participate in parental care. Young remain with the mother until the following winter's mating season, and siblings may remain together for a while after separation from the mother. Females reach sexual maturity at 21 months and males at 33 months.

Breeding interval: Lynx can breed once per year.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs in January and February.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 6.

Average number of offspring: 2.

Range gestation period: 56 to 70 days.

Average weaning age: 150 days.

Average time to independence: 10 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 21 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 33 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 204 g.

Average number of offspring: 3.5.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

Sex: male: 573 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 498 days.

Females give birth to their young in fallen logs, stumps, clumps of timber, or similar tangles of roots and branches. This, one assumes, helps to protect the young from potential predators.

All parental care is provided by females. Young are altricial at birth, but have well-developed pelage. Nursing lasts for about 5 months, after which the young eat prey. Mothers may help to educate their young in hunting techniques, and cooperative hunting has been observed.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

Breeds in late winter-early spring in North America. Gestation lasts 62-74 days. Litter size averages 3-4; adult females produce one litter every 1-2 years. Young stay with mother until next mating season or longer. Some females give birth as yearlings, but their pregnancy rate is lower than that of older females (Brainerd 1985). Prey scarcity suppresses breeding and may result in mortality of nearly all young (Brand and Keith 1979).

Lynx are listed in CITES Appendix II, and they are listed as threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and endangered in the state of Michigan.

US Federal List: threatened

CITES: appendix ii

State of Michigan List: endangered

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N4 - Apparently Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Large range in northern North America; declines have occurred in some populations, but apparently still widespread and relatively abundant in most of historic range, though population data are lacking for many areas; habitat loss/fragmentation and susceptibility to overharvest are the major concerns.

In the contiguous U.S., overall numbers and range are substantially reduced from historical levels. At present, numbers have not recovered from overexploitation by both regulated and unregulated harvest that occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. Forest management practices that result in the loss of diverse age structure, fragmentation, roading, urbanization, agriculture, recreational developments, and unnatural fire frequencies have altered suitable habitat in many areas. As a result, many states may have insufficient habitat quality and/or quantity to sustain lynx or their prey. Human access into habitat has increased dramatically over the last few decades contributing to direct and indirect mortality and displacement from suitable habitat. Although legal take is highly restricted, existing regulatory mechanisms may be inadequate to protect small, remnant populations or to conserve habitat. Competition with bobcats and coyotes may be a concern in some areas.

Other Considerations: See EGR for coterminous United States population (Lynx canadensis POP 1).

Degree of Threat: C : Not very threatened throughout its range, communities often provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure over the short-term, or communities are self-protecting because they are unsuitable for other uses

Comments: In determining threatened status for the contiguous U.S. distinct population segment, USFWS (2000) cited the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms. "Current U.S. Forest Service Land and Resource Management Plans include programs, practices, and activities within the authority and jurisdiction of federal land management agencies that may threaten lynx or lynx habitat. The lack of protection for lynx in these plans render[s] them inadequate to protect the species" (USFWS 2000). Past extensive logging that eliminated habitat for lynx and snowshoe hare was detrimental. Habitat has been lost due to suppression of forest fires and ecological succession to habitats that no longer support snowshoe hare and lynx. Fragmentation, due to forestry, agriculture, and roads, and the subsequent isolation of suitable habitat is a concern. Lack of immigration from Canadian lynx populations is an important factor in some regions. Past excessive trapping of lynx (as recently as the 1970s and 1980s) depressed populations and may have been detrimental to local lynx populations in Washington (see U.S. Forest Service et al. 1993) and elsewhere (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1998). Road construction causes habitat fragmentation and allows increased human access into lynx habitat; this may increase lynx mortality by facilitating access to hunters and trappers (although there is no legal harvest except for two lynx per year in Montana); incidental harvest of lynx in the course of legal trapping/hunting for other species may be a problem in some areas. Increased winter recreation (snowmobiles, ski area development) may be causing displacement and/or incidental mortality of lynx. Habitat changes and increased access into lynx habitats has resulted in increased competition and displacement of lynx by bobcat and coyote in some areas.

Management Requirements: Trapping may be major source of mortality; such mortality is in addition to natural mortality during times of low hare abundance and low recruitment (Brittell et al. 1989). Refugia not subject to trapping may be important in maintaining populations during periods of low recruitment (Ward and Krebs 1985).

For the Pacific Northwest, U.S. Forest Service et al. (1993) recommended the following actions within known lynx range: (1) minimizing road construction, closing unused roads, and maintaining roads to the minimum standard possible, (2) using prescribed fire to maintain forage for snowshoe hare in juxtaposition with hunting cover for lynx, (3) designating areas to be closed to kill trapping of any furbearer to avoid incidental lynx mortality to maintain population refugia for lynx in key areas, (4) planning for kill-trapping closure on a wider basis if data indicate a declining lynx population as a result of incidental trapping mortality, and (5) developing and implementing a credible survey and monitoring stretegy to determine the distribution of lynx throughout its potential range.

Management Research Needs: Develop accurate and reliable population size and trend indices.

Initiate intensive long-term studies of populations with known sex and age structure, reproductive activities, home ranges, habitat use, food habits, trends in prey species and interactions with other predators; such areas should then be tested with closely regulated harvest programs to determine optimal management strategies (McCord and Cardoza 1982).

Global Protection: Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Managed in some states and provinces as a furbearer species with no harvest allowed. In the U.S., only Montana currently allows a regulated harvest (quota of two lynx statewide as of 1997-1998 harvest season); fully protected in all other states; protected in national parks.

Needs: Protect from overharvest.

Canadian lynx are not known to have a negative impact on human economies.

Canadian lynx have been exploited for their fur since the seventeenth century. With restrictions on trade in furs of large cats in the late 1960's, and subsequent reduction of ocelot and margay populations by fur trappers, increased attention has been focused on the pelts of Canadian lynx. However, it seems that the greatest pressure on populations of lynx remains the size of hare populations, not trappers. Lynx help control populations of small mammals, such as snowshoe hares and voles, that are agricultural or silvicultural pests.

Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; controls pest population

Comments: Placed in the genus Felis by some authors. Some authors regard L. lynx, L. canadensis, and L. pardinus as conspecific (see Tumlison 1987). Jones et al. (1992) treated L. canadensis and L. lynx as conspecific. Baker et al. (2003) amd Wozencraft (in Wilson and Reeder 1993, 2005) recognized L. canadensis (North America), L. lynx (Eurasia), and L. pardinus (Portugal, Spain) as separate species.