Table of Contents
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Overview
Brief Summary
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Biology
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Description
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Description
Adaptation: Large, shearing carnassial teeth at the back dominate the jaw structure of the Least Weasel, Mustela nivalis, as they do in all members of the weasel family.
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- Original description: Linnaeus, C., 1766. Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classis, ordines, genera, species cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Twelfth Edition, p. 69. Laurentii Salvii, Uppsala, 1:1-532.
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Distribution
Geographic Range
Least weasels are native to the Nearctic and Palearctic regions and have been introduced to the Australian region. They are found throughout Europe and northern Asia (excluding Ireland, the Arabian Pennisula, and Artic islands), in Japan, and throughout North America. In North America they range from Alaska and northern Canada south to Wyoming and North Carolina. A population of least weasels was introduced to New Zealand as well.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); australian (Introduced )
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Range Description
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Geographic Range
Least weasels are found throughout the Palearctic region (excluding Ireland, the Arabian Pennisula, and the Arctic Isles), in Japan, and in the Nearctic, from Alaska and northern Canada south to Wyoming and North Carolina (Honacki, 1982). A population of least weasels was introduced to New Zealand as well (Sheffield, 1994).
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native ); australian (Introduced )
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National Distribution
Canada
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: Circumboreal, Holarctic distribution. Western Hemisphere: most of Canada and Alaska south to British Columbia, Montana, Wyoming, Oklahoma, Missouri, Ohio, Virginia, and along the Appalachians to the Great Smoky Mountains (North Carolina, Tennessee). Range has expanded southward in the Great Plains since the mid-1960s as the climate has become cooler and more mesic (Frey 1992). Thought to be rare (though sometimes locally fairly common) throughout the range in the southeastern U.S., but actual status is uncertain (Handley 1991). Introduced in New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azore Islands, and apparently also Sao Tome off west Africa (Sheffield and King 1994). Ranges to 3660 m in mountains of Eurasia.
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Range
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Least weasels are long and slender, with a long neck, a narrow head, and short limbs. They have large, black eyes and large, round ears. The feet have five fingers with sharp claws. The mass of least weasels varies depending upon their location. In North America least weasels range in weight from 30 to 55 grams, with males being slightly larger than females. Total length ranges from 165 to 205 mm, tail length ranges from 22 to 40 mm. Fur color is chocolate brown on their back and white with brown spots on the underparts. The summer coat is about 1 cm in length. The winter coat, which is about 1.5 cm in length, turns to all white in northern populations and remains brown in southern populations.
Range mass: 30.0 to 55.0 g.
Range length: 165.0 to 205.0 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
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Physical Description
The body of least weasels is long and slender, with a long neck; a flat, narrow head; and short limbs. This animal has large black eyes and large, round ears. The feet have five fingers with sharp claws. Mass is dependent upon location, North American populations are the smallest and those found in northern Africa have the largest mass. Fur color is chocolate brown on the back and white with brown spots on the underparts. The summer coat is about 1 cm in length. The winter coat, which is about 1.5 cm in length, turns to all white in northern populations and remains brown in the southern populations (Sheffield, 1994).
Range mass: 30.0 to 55.0 g.
Range length: 165.0 to 205.0 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
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Size
Size in North America
Length:
Range: 180-205 mm males; 165-180 mm females
Weight:
Range: 40-55 g males; 30-50 g females
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Ecology
Habitat
Least weasels do well in a wide variety of habitats, including open forests, farmlands, meadows, prairies, steppe, and semi-deserts. Least weasels avoid deep forests, sandy deserts, and open spaces. They are well adapted for the tundra regions.
Habitat Regions: temperate
Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; taiga ; forest ; rainforest
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Habitat and Ecology
Systems
- Terrestrial
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Least weasels can survive in a wide variety of habitats, including open forests , farmlands, meadows, prairies, steppe, and semi-deserts. Least weasels avoid deep forests, sandy deserts, and open spaces. They are well adapted for the tundra (Sheffield, 1994).
Habitat Regions: temperate
Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; taiga ; forest ; rainforest
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Comments: Habitat varies geographically and includes open forests, farmlands and cultivated areas, grassy fields and meadows, riparian woodlands, hedgerows, alpine meadows, scrub, steppe and semi-deserts, prairies, coastal dunes, and sometimes rural residential areas; snow cover is not an obstacle; generally avoids deep dense forest and sandy desert. When inactive, occupies burrow made by vole or mole, or rests in nest in hole in wall of building or under corn shock or similar site. Den site may change often. Young are born in abandoned underground burrows made by other mammals (or similar secluded sites).
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Migration
Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
The diet of least weasels is composed of small mammals, mainly rodents like Peromyscus leucopus and Microtus pennsylvanicus. When rodents are scarce, weasels will eat Aves, Insecta, and Squamata. The size of prey that least weasels are able to hunt depends on burrow size of the prey. If the weasel is too large to fit into the burrow it is unlikely that they will be able to hunt those animals. Because females are smaller, they are able to hunt smaller prey than males. Least weasels will kill more prey than they can eat at the time and will store this surplus in their burrows for later consumption.
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Food Habits
The diet of least weasels is composed of small mammals, mainly rodents. When rodents are scarce, weasels will eat birds' eggs and nestlings. Their diet also ranges from insects to lizards. In the extreme northern populations they will eat the carcasses of brown lemmings. Males are better hunters and are more likely to hunt larger prey, while females will continue looking for small rodents (Sheffield, 1994).
Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)
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Comments: Specialist predator of small mammals, especially voles, lemmings, and other mice. When small rodents are scarce, may consume other small vertebrates, insects, or worms. Young are adept at killing mice at 7 weeks.
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Associations
Ecosystem Roles
Least weasels play an important role in controlling rodent populations.
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Predation
Least weasels are aggressive and fierce and will attack animals much larger than themselves. Young in nests are preyed on by Squamata, while adults may be preyed on by large birds of prey, such as Strigiformes and Accipitridae.
Known Predators:
- owls (Strigiformes)
- hawks (Accipitridae)
- snakes (Serpentes)
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Ecosystem Roles
Least weasels are important predators of small mammals in the ecosystems in which they live.
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Predation
Least weasels are aggressive and fierce and will attack animals much larger than themselves. Young in nests are preyed on by snakes, while adults may be preyed on by large birds of prey, such as owls and hawks.
Known Predators:
- owls (Strigiformes)
- hawks (Accipitridae)
- snakes (Serpentes)
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Known predators
Buteo lagopus
Squamata
Strigiformes
Accipitridae
Based on studies in:
Russia (Tundra)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- T. Dunaeva and V. Kucheruk, Material on the ecology of the terrestrial vertebrates of the tundra of south Yamal, Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou (N.S., Zool. Sect.) 4(19):1-80 (1941).
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
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Known prey organisms
Microtus
Microtus xanthognathus
Clethrionomys glareolus
Based on studies in:
Russia (Tundra)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- T. Dunaeva and V. Kucheruk, Material on the ecology of the terrestrial vertebrates of the tundra of south Yamal, Bull. Soc. Nat. Moscou (N.S., Zool. Sect.) 4(19):1-80 (1941).
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
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General Ecology
Home range size varies with conditions; up to 26 ha in males, up to 7 ha in females; in England, average home range was 7-15 ha for males, 1-4 ha for females (King 1975). Basically solitary, except during breeding season and when females have young. High dispersal rate, good ability to colonize vacant habitat when rodent populations increase.
Density fluctuates with rodent populations; 0.2-1.0/ha in favorable conditions, average as low as 1-7/100 ha over wider areas (Erlinger 1974, Golley 1960, Sheffield and King 1994).
Mortality rate is high (overall annual rate is 75-90%); average age at death is less than one year. Predators include various Carnovora, raptors, and possibly snakes.
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Life History and Behavior
Behavior
Communication and Perception
Least weasels possess keen senses of smell, hearing, touch, and sight. As with most mammals they rely heavily on their sense of smell, communicating among themselves and locating prey by detecting scents.
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Communication and Perception
Least weasels possess keen senses of smell, hearing, touch, and sight. As with most mammals they rely heavily on their sense of smell, communicating among themselves and locating prey by detecting scents.
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Cyclicity
Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
Least weasels probably only live for several years after reaching adulthood and most die before reaching adulthood.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 9.1 (high) years.
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Lifespan/Longevity
Least weasels probably only live for several years after reaching adulthood and most die before reaching adulthood.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 9.1 (high) years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Mating System: polygynous
Pregancy in least weasels lasts from 34 to 37 days. Litters may range from 1 to 7 young. A higher number of offspring per litter can be found in northern populations. In the wild it is possible to have two litters per year, but there is a high death rate in the second litter. Females that are born in the spring are mature in four months and may breed in their first summer. Summer and autumn born females are not as well developed and cannot breed until the next summer. Males reach sexual maturity at 8 months old.
Breeding interval: Least weasels can breed once or twice each year.
Breeding season: Least weasels breed in spring and late summer.
Range number of offspring: 1.0 to 7.0.
Range gestation period: 37.0 (high) days.
Range weaning age: 18.0 (low) days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4.0 to 8.0 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 4.0 to 8.0 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); viviparous
Average birth mass: 2.6 g.
Average number of offspring: 5.
Newborns weigh from 1.1 g to 1.7 g and are naked, blind, and deaf. They are nursed and cared for in the burrow by their mother. After 49 to 56 days, they have reached their adult length. By week 6, males are larger than females. In 9 to 12 weeks the family groups begin to break up, and in 12 to 15 weeks the weasels reach their adult weight.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care
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Mating System: polygynous
In North America, central Europe, and the former USSR, breeding can occur throughout the year, but the most breeding occurs in the spring and late summer. Gestation in least weasels lasts from 34 - 37 days. Litters may range from 1 - 7. A higher number of offspring per litter can be found in northern populations. Newborns weigh from 1.1 g to 1.7 g and are wrinkled, pink, naked, blind, and deaf. After 49 - 56 days, they have reached their adult length. By week 6 males are larger than females. In 9 - 12 weeks the family groups begin to break up, and in 12 - 15 weeks least weasels reach their adult mass. Females that are born in the spring are sexually mature in three months and may breed in their first summer. Summer and autumn born females are not as well developed and cannot breed until the next summer (Sheffield, 1994).
Breeding interval: Least weasels can breed once or twice each year.
Breeding season: Least weasels breed in spring and late summer.
Range number of offspring: 1.0 to 7.0.
Range gestation period: 37.0 (high) days.
Range weaning age: 18.0 (low) days.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4.0 to 8.0 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 4.0 to 8.0 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (Internal ); viviparous
Average birth mass: 2.6 g.
Average number of offspring: 5.
Newborns weigh from 1.1 g to 1.7 g and are naked, blind, and deaf. They are nursed and cared for in the burrow by their mother. After 49 to 56 days, they have reached their adult length. By week 6, males are larger than females. In 9 to 12 weeks the family groups begin to break up, and in 12 to 15 weeks the weasels reach their adult weight.
Females care for and nurse their young until they become independent.
Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care
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May breed throughout the year but mainly in spring and late summer. When rodents are plentiful, may breed in winter under snow. Gestation lasts 34-37 days, including the 10-12 days between fertilization and implantation. Litter size averages 4-5 in temperate zone, higher in arctic latitudes. Commonly two litters/year. Young are tended by both parents, weaned by 6-7 weeks. Family groups break up when young are about 9-12 weeks old. Spring-born females are sexually mature in 3-4 months (may produce a litter in their first summer), males in 8 months. Reproductive output increases when food is abundant (more young are born, greater survivorship).
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Mustela nivalis
There are 2 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank. Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species. See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
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Download FASTA File
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Statistics of barcoding coverage: Mustela nivalis
Public Records: 2
Specimens with Barcodes: 7
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Conservation
Conservation Status
Least weasel populations are not considered threatened.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
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IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Contributor/s
Justification
History
- 1996Lower Risk/least concern
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Least weasels are generally widespread and abundant. Localized populations may be threatened by habitat destruction, but these animals are generally not threatened.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
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Status
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Trends
Population
Population Trend
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Threats
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Management
Conservation Actions
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Conservation
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Least weasels have been hunted and trapped by humans throughout the world. They help keep in check the populations of many species of rodents that are potentially harmful to agriculture.
Positive Impacts: controls pest population
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Least weasels have been hunted and trapped by humans throughout the world (Sheffield, 1994). The help keep in check the populations of many species of rodents that are potentially harmful to agriculture.
Positive Impacts: controls pest population
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Wikipedia
Least weasel
The least weasel (Mustela nivalis) is the smallest member of the Mustelidae (as well as the smallest of the Carnivora), native to Eurasia, North America and North Africa, though it has been introduced elsewhere. It is classed as Least Concern by the IUCN, due to its wide distribution and presumably large population.[1] Despite its small size, the least weasel is a fierce hunter, capable of killing a rabbit 5-10 times its own weight.[2]
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Evolution
Within the genus Mustela, the least weasel is a relatively unspecialised form, as evidenced by its pedomorphic skull, which occurs even in large subspecies.[3] Its direct ancestor was Mustela praenivalis, which lived in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene and Villafranchian. M. praenivalis itself was probably preceded by M. pliocaenica of the Pliocene. The modern species probably arose during the Late Pleistocene.[4] The least weasel is the product of a process begun 5-7 million years ago, when northern forests were replaced by open grassland, thus prompting an explosive evolution of small, burrowing rodents. The weasel's ancestors were larger than the current form, and underwent a reduction in size to exploit the new food source. The least weasel thrived during the Ice Age, as its small size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow, as well as hunt in burrows. It probably crossed to North America through the Bering land bridge 200,000 years ago.[5]
Subspecies
The least weasel has a high geographic variation, a fact which has historically led to numerous disagreements among biologists studying its systematics. Least weasel subspecies are divided into 3 categories:[6]
- The pygmaea-rixosa group (small weasels): Tiny weasels with short tails and pedomorphic skulls, which turn pure white in winter. They inhabit northern European Russia, Siberia, the Russian Far East, Finland, northern Scandinavian Peninsula, Mongolia, northeastern China, Japan and North America.
- The boccamela group (large weasels): Very large weasels with large skulls, relatively long tails and lighter coloured pelts. Locally, they either do not turn white or only partially in winter. They inhabit Transcaucasia, from western Kazakhstan to Semirechye and in the flat deserts of Middle Asia.
- The nivalis group (average weasels): Medium-sized weasels, with tails of moderate length, representing a transitional form between the former two groups. They inhabit the middle and southern regions of European Russia, Crimea, Ciscaucasus, western Kazakhstan, southern and middle Urals and montane parts of Middle Asia, save for Koppet Dag.
As of 2005[update],[7] 18 subspecies are recognised.
| Subspecies | Trinomial authority | Description | Range | Synonyms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Common weasel Mustela n. nivalis | Linnaeus, 1766 | A medium sized subspecies with a tail of moderate length, constituting about 20-21% of its body length. In its summer fur, the upper body is dark-brownish or chestnut colour, while its winter fur is pure white. It is probably a transitional form between the small pygmaea and large vulgaris[8] | Middle regions of European Russia, from the Baltic states to the middle and southern Urals, northward approximately to the latitude of Saint Petersburg and Perm, and south to the Kursk and Voronezh Oblasts. Outside the former Soviet Union, its range includes Northern Europe (Excluding Ireland and Iceland) save for Finland and parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula | caraftensis (Kishida, 1936) kerulenica (Bannikov, 1952) |
| Allegheny Weasel Mustela n. allegheniensis | Rhoads, 1901 | Similar to Mustela n. rixosa, but is larger, has a darker coat, and is more adapted to live in Deciduous forests. | Southeastern USA (Michigan, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, West Virginia) | |
| Transcaucasian weasel Mustela n. boccamela | Bechstein, 1800 | A very large subspecies, with a long tail constituting about 30% of its body length. In its summer fur, the upper body is light brownish or chestnut with yellowish or reddish tints, with some individuals having a brownish dot on the corners of the mout and sometimes on the chest and belly. The winter fur is not pure white, being usually dirty white with brown patches[9] | Transcaucasia, southern Europe, Asia Minor and probably western Iran | italicus (Barrett-Hamilton, 1900) |
| Plains weasel Mustela n. campestris | Jackson, 1913 | Southwestern USA (South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska) | ||
| Mustela n. caucasica | Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 | dinniki (Satunin, 1907) | ||
| Mustela n. eskimo
| Stone, 1900 | A small subspecies. Resembles Mustela n. Rixosa, but is slightly larger, ranges far north, and has a light summer coat. It is often called the snow weasel in winter. Also called the mouse weasel due to its small size. | Alaska, Yukon | |
| Turkmenian weasel Mustela n. heptneri | Morozova-Turova, 1953 | A very large subspecies with a long tail constituting about 25-30% of its body length. In its summer fur, the upper body is very light sandy brown or pale-yellowish. The fur is short, sparse and coarse, and does not turn white in winter[10] | Semideserts and deserts of southern Kazakhstan and Middle Asia from the Caspian Sea to Semirechye, southern Tajikistan, Koppet Dag, Afghanistan and northeastern Iran | |
| Korean weasel Mustela n. mosanensis | Mori, 1927 | Korean Peninsula | ||
| Japanese weasel Mustela n. namiyei | Kuroda, 1921 | A very small subspecies with a small short tail. In winter, its fur coat turns pure white. | Japan | |
| Mediterranean weasel Mustela n. numidica
| Pucheran, 1855 | Morocco, Algeria, Malta, Azores Islands and Corsica | albipes (Mina Palumbo, 1868) algiricus (Thomas, 1895) | |
| Montane Turkestan weasel Mustela n. pallida | Barrett-Hamilton, 1900 | A medium sized subspecies with a tail constituting about 24% of its body length. The colour of the summer fur is light-brownish, while the winter fur is white[11] | Montane parts of Turkmenia, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kirgizia, as well as Chinese parts of the same mountain systems and perhaps in the extreme eastern parts of Hindukush | |
| Siberian least weasel Mustela n. pygmaea | J. A. Allen, 1903 | A very small subspecies, with a short tail which constitutes about 13% of its body length. In its summer coat, the dorsal colour is dark-brown or reddish, while the winter fur is entirely white[12] | All of Siberia, except southern nd southeastern Transbaikalia; northern and middle Urals, northern Kazakhstan and the Russian Far East including Sakhalin and Kuril Islands, European Russia westwards to the Kola Peninsula and southwards to the northern parts of the Kirovsky and Gorkovsk districts. Outside of the former USSR, its range includes Finland, northern Scandinavian and Korean Peninsulas, all of Mongolia save for the eastern part and probably northeastern China | kamtschatica (Dybowksi, 1922) |
| Bangs' weasel Mustela n. rixosa
| Bangs, 1896 | The smallest subspecies. In its summer coat, the fur is dark reddish brown, while the winter fur is pure white[13] | Mackenzie[disambiguation needed], Labrador, Quebec, Minnesota, North Dakota, Montana, Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia | |
| Mustela n. rossica | Abramov and Baryshnikov, 2000 | |||
| Sichuan weasel Mustela n. russelliana | Thomas, 1911 | Sichuan, southern China | ||
| Mustela n. stoliczkana | Blanford, 1877 | Kashgaria | ||
| Vietnamese weasel Mustela n. tonkinensis | Björkegren, 1941 | Northern and southern Vietnam | ||
| Middle-European weasel Mustela n. vulgaris
| Erxleben, 1777 | A somewhat larger subspecies than nivalis, with a longer tail which constitutes about 27% of its body length. In its summer fur, the upper body varies from being light-brownish to dark-chestnut, while the winter fur is white in its northern range and piebald in its southern range[14] | Southern European Russia from the latitude of southern Voronezh and Kursk districts, Crimea, Ciscaucasia, northern slope of the main Caucasus, eastward to the Volga. Outside the former Soviet Union, its range includes Europe southward to the Alps and Pyrenees | dumbrowskii (Matschie, 1901) hungarica (Vásárhelyi, 1942) |
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Physical description
The least weasel has a thin, greatly elongated and extremely flexible body with a small, yet elongated, blunt-muzzled head which is no thicker than the neck. The eyes are large, bulging and dark coloured. The legs and tail are relatively short, the latter constituting less than half its body length. The feet are armed with sharp, dark claws, and the soles are heavily haired.[15] The skull, especially that of the small rixosa group, has an infantile appearance when compared with that of other members of the genus Mustela (in particular, the stoat and kolonok). This is expressed in the relatively large size of the cranium and shortened facial region.[16] The skull is, overall, similar to that of the stoat, but smaller, though the skulls of large male weasels tend to overlap in size with those of small female stoats.[17] It usually has 4 pairs of nipples, but these are only visible in females. The baculum is short (16–20 mm), with a thick, straight shaft. Fat is deposited along the spine, kidneys, gut mesentries and around the limbs. The least weasel has muscular anal glands under the tail, which measure 7 x 5 mm, and contain sulphurous volatiles, including thietanes and dithiacyclopentanes. The smell and chemical composition of these chemicals are distinct from those of the stoat.[17] The least weasel moves by jumping, the distance between the tracks of the fore and hind limbs being 18–35 cm.[18]
Dimensions vary geographically, to an extent rarely found among other mammals. Least weasels of the vulgaris group, for example, may outweigh the smaller races by almost four times. In some large subspecies, the male may be 1.5 times longer than the female. Variations in tail length are also variable, constituting from 13-30% of the length of the body. Average body length in males is 130–260 mm, while females average 114–204 mm. The tail measures 12–87 mm in males and 17–60 mm in females. Males weigh 36-250 grams, while females weigh 29.5-117 grams.[19]
The winter fur is dense, but short and closely fitting. In northern subspecies, the fur is soft and silky, but coarse in southern forms. The summer fur is very short, sparser and rougher. The upper parts in the summer fur are dark, but vary geographically from dark-tawny or dark-chocolate to light pale tawny or sandy. The lower parts, including the lower jaw and inner sides of the legs, are white. The dividing line between the dark upper and light lower parts is straight, but sometimes forms an irregular line. In winter, the fur is pure white, and only exhibits black hairs in rare circumstances.[16]
Reproduction and development
The least weasel mates in April–July, with a 34-37 day gestation period. In the northern hemisphere, the average litter size consists of 6 kits, which reach sexual maturity in 3–4 months. Males may mate during their first year of life, though this is usually unsuccessful. They are fecund in February–October, though the early stages of spermatogenesis do occur throughout the winter months. Anestrus in females lasts from September-February.[20]
The female raises its kits alone, which are 1.5-4.5 grams in weight when born. Newborn kits are born pink, naked, blind and deaf, but gain a white coat of downy fur at the age of 4 days. At 10 days, the margin between the dark upper parts and light under parts becomes visible. The milk teeth erupt at 2–3 weeks of age, at which point they are weaned, though lactation can last 12 weeks. The eyes and ears open at 3–4 weeks of age, and by 8 weeks, killing behaviour is developed. The family breaks up after 9–12 weeks.[20]
Territorial and social behaviours
The least weasel has a typical Mustelid territorial pattern, consisting of exclusive male ranges encompassing multiple female ranges. The population density of each territory depends greatly on food supply and reproductive success, thus the social structure and population density of any given territory is unstable and flexible. Like the stoat, the male least weasel extends its range during spring or during food shortages. Its scent marking behaviour is similar to the stoat's; it uses faeces, urine and anal and dermal gland secretions, the latter two of which are deposited by anal dragging and body rubbing. The least weasel does not dig its own dens, but nests in the abandoned burrows of other species such as moles and rats.[22] The burrow entrance measures about 2.5 cm across and leads to the nest chamber located up to 15 cm below-ground. The nest chamber (which is used for sleeping, rearing kits and storing food) measures 10 cm in diametre, and is lined with straw and the skins of the weasel's prey.[23]
The least weasel has four basic vocalisations; a guttural hiss emitted when alarmed, which is interspersed with short screaming barks and shrieks when provoked. When defensive, it emits a shrill wail or squeal. During encounters between males and females or between a mother and kits, the least weasel emits a high-pitched trilling. The species' way of expressing aggression is similar to that of the stoat. Dominant weasels exhibit lunges and shrieks during aggressive encounters, while subdominant weasels will emit submissive squeals.[22]
Diet
The least weasel feeds predominantly on mouse-like rodents, including mice, hamsters, gerbils and others. It usually does not attack adult hamsters and rats. Frogs, fish, small birds and bird eggs are rarely eaten. It can deal with adult pikas and gerbils, but usually cannot overcome brown rats and sousliks. Exceptional cases are known of least weasels killing prey far larger than themselves, such as capercaillie, hazel hen and hares.[24] Rabbits are commonly taken, but are usually young specimens. Rabbits become an important food source during the spring, when small rodents are scarce and rabbit kits plentiful. Male least weasels take a higher proportion of rabbits than females, as well as an overall greater variety of prey. This is linked to the fact that being larger, and having vaster territorial ranges than females, males have more opportunities to hunt a greater diversity of prey.[25] The least weasel forages undercover, to avoid foxes and birds of prey. It is adapted for pursuing its prey down tunnels, though it may also bolt prey from their burrows and kill it in the open.[25] It kills small prey, such as voles, with a bite to the occipital region of the skull[24] or the neck, dislocating the cervical vertebrae. Large prey typically dies of blood loss or shock.[25] When food is abundant, only a small portion of the prey is eaten, usually the brain. The average daily food intake is 35 grams, which is equivalent to 30-35% of its body weight.[24]
Range
The least weasel has a circumboreal, Holarctic distribution, encompassing much of Europe and North Africa, Asia and northern North America, though it has been introduced in New Zealand, Malta, Crete, the Azore Islands and also Sao Tome off west Africa. It is found throughout Europe and on many islands, including the Azores, Britain (but not Ireland), and all major Mediterranean islands. It also occurs on Honshu and Hokkaido islands in Japan and on Kunashir, Iturup, and Sakhalin Islands in Russia.[1]
Predators and competitors
The least weasel is small enough to be preyed upon by a range of other predators.[26] Least weasel remains have been found in the excrement of red foxes, sables, steppe and forest polecat, stoats, eagle owls and buzzards.[27] The owls most efficient at capturing least weasels are barn, barred and great horned owls. Other birds of prey threatening to the least weasel include broad-winged and rough-legged buzzards. Some snake species may prey on the least weasel, including the black rat snake and copperhead.[23] Aside from its smaller size, the least weasel is more vulnerable to predation than the stoat because it lacks a black predator deflection mark on the tail.[26]
In areas where the least weasel is sympatric with the stoat, the two species compete with each other for rodent prey. The weasel manages to avoid overly competing with the stoat by living in more upland areas, and preying on smaller prey and being capable of entering smaller holes. The least weasel actively avoids encounters with stoats, though female weasels are less likely to stop foraging in the presence of stoats, likely because their smaller size allows them to quickly escape in holes.[28]
Diseases and parasites
Ectoparasites known to infest weasels include the louse Trichodectes mustelae and the mites Demodex and Psoregates mustela. The species may catch fleas from the nests and burrows of its prey. Flea species known to infest weasels include Ctenophthalmus bisoctodentatus and Palaeopsylla m. minor, which they get from moles, P. s. soricis, which they get from shrews, Nosopsyllus fasciatus, which they get from rodents and Dasypsyllus gallinulae which they get from birds.[26]
Helminths known to infest weasels include the trematode Alaria, the nematodes Capillaria, Filaroides and Trichinella and the cestode Taenia. Least weasels are commonly infected with Skrjabingylus nasicola, which burrows into their skulls and causes fits.[26]
In folklore and mythology
The Ancient Macedonians believed that to see a weasel was a good omen. In some districts of Macedon, women who suffered from headaches after having washed their heads in water drawn overnight would assume that a weasel had previously used the water as a mirror, but they would refrain from mentioning the animal's name for fear that it would destroy their clothes. Similarly, a popular superstition in southern Greece had it that the weasel had previously been a bride, who was transformed into a bitter animal which would destroy the wedding dresses of other brides out of jealousy.[29] According to Pliny the Elder, the weasel is the only animal capable of killing the basilisk;
To this dreadful monster the effluvium of the weasel is fatal, a thing that has been tried with success, for kings have often desired to see its body when killed; so true is it that it has pleased Nature that there should be nothing without its antidote. The animal is thrown into the hole of the basilisk, which is easily known from the soil around it being infected. The weasel destroys the basilisk by its odour, but dies itself in this struggle of nature against its own self.[30]
The Chippewa believed that the weasel could kill the dreaded wendigo giant by rushing up its anus.[31] In Inuit mythology, the weasel is credited with both great wisdom and courage, and whenever a mythical Inuit hero wished to accomplish a valorous task, he would generally change himself into a weasel.[32] According to Matthew Hopkins, a witch hunter general during the English Civil War, weasels were the familiars of witches.[33]
In Japanese they are called "iizuna" or "izuna" (飯綱) and in the Tōhoku Region and Shinshū, it was believed that there were families that were able to use a certain practice to freely use kudagitsune as "iizuna-tsukai" or "kitsune-mochi." It is said that Mount Iizuna from the Nagano Prefecture got its name due to how the gods gave people mastery of this technique from there.[34]
According to the folkloristician Mutō Tetsujō, "they are called 'izuna' in the Senboku District,[* 1] Akita Prefecture, and there are also the ichiko (itako) that use them."[35] Also, in the Kitaakita District, they are called mōsuke (猛助), and they are feared as yōkai even more than foxes (kitsune).[35]
In the Ainu language, ermines are called "upas-čironnup" or "sáčiri," but since least weasels are also called "sáčiri," Mashio Chiri surmised that the honarary title "poy-sáčiri-kamuy" (where "poy" means "small") refers to least weasels.[36]
References
Remarks
Notes
- ^ a b c Tikhonov, A., Cavallini, P., Maran, T., Kranz, A., Herrero, J., Giannatos, G., Stubbe, M., Conroy, J., Kryštufek, B., Abramov, A., Wozencraft, C., Reid, F. & McDonald, R. (2008). Mustela nivalis. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Retrieved 21 March 2009. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern
- ^ Macdonald 1992, p. 208
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 972
- ^ Kurtén 1968, pp. 102–103
- ^ Macdonald 1992, p. 205
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 975–978
- ^ Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 982
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 980
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 981
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 984
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 978
- ^ Merriam 1896, pp. 14–15
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 983
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 967–969
- ^ a b Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 969
- ^ a b Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 468
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 991
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 970–972
- ^ a b Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 474
- ^ Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 154
- ^ a b Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 471–472
- ^ a b Merritt & Matink 1987, p. 277
- ^ a b c Heptner & Sludskii 2002, pp. 987–988
- ^ a b c Harris & Yalden 2008, pp. 472–473
- ^ a b c d Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 475
- ^ Heptner & Sludskii 2002, p. 992
- ^ Harris & Yalden 2008, p. 469
- ^ Abbott, G. A. (1903), Macedonian Folklore, pp. 108-109, Cambridge University Press
- ^ Pliny the Elder, eds. John Bostock, Henry Thomas Riley (translators) (1855). "The Natural History". Retrieved 2009-06-10.
- ^ Barnouw, Victor (1979) Wisconsin Chippewa Myths & Tales: And Their Relation to Chippewa Life, pp. 53, University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0-299-07314-9
- ^ Dufresne, Frank (2005), Alaska's Animals and Fishes, pp. 109, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 1-4179-8416-3
- ^ Summers, Montague (2005) Geography of Witchcraft, pp. 29, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 0-7661-4536-0
- ^ 『広辞苑 第4版』(1991年)、岩波書店「いづなつかい【飯綱使・飯縄遣】」の項
- ^ a b c 武藤, 鉄城 (1940), "秋田郡邑魚譚", アチックミユーゼアム彙報 (「仙北地方/生保内村」の部) 45: 41–42, "北秋田ではモウスケと称して狐より怖がられ、仙北地方ではイヅナと称し、それを使う巫女(エチコ)もある。学名コエゾイタチを、此の付近..〔生保内村〕では..オコジョと云ふ(田口耕之助氏)"。
- ^ 知里, 真志保 (Chiri, Mashiho) (3月30日), "アイヌ語獣名集 (On the names of the mammals of the Ainu language)" (pdf), 北海道大學文學部紀要 = The annual reports on cultural science: 141, ISSN 04376668, archived from the original on 不明
Bibliography
- Coues, Elliott (1877). Fur-bearing Animals: A Monograph of North American Mustelidae. Government Printing Office
- Harris, Stephen; Yalden, Derek (2008). Mammals of the British Isles. Mammal Society; 4th Revised edition edition. ISBN 0-906282-65-9
- Johnston, Harry Hamilton (1903), British mammals; an attempt to describe and illustrate the mammalian fauna of the British islands from the commencement of the Pleistocene period down to the present day, London, Hutchinson
- Kurtén, Björn (1968). Pleistocene mammals of Europe. Weidenfeld and Nicolson
- Kurtén, Björn (1980). Pleistocene mammals of North America. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03733-3
- Heptner, V. G.; Sludskii, A. A. (2002). Mammals of the Soviet Union. Vol. II, part 1b, Carnivores (Mustelidae and Procyonidae). Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation. ISBN 90-04-08876-8
- Macdonald, David (1992). The Velvet Claw: A Natural History of the Carnivores. New York: Parkwest. ISBN 0-563-20844-9
- Merriam, Clinton Hart (1896), Synopsis of the weasels of North America, Washington : Govt. Print. Off.
- Merritt, Joseph F.; Matinko, Ruth Anne (1987). Guide to the mammals of Pennsylvania. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-5393-5
Source:
Wikipedia
Unreviewed
Names and Taxonomy
Taxonomy
Comments: The North American population sometimes is treated as a separate species, Mustela rixosa. Confusion has existed for a long time regarding the taxonomic status of this species and its subspecies, particularly in Europe (see Sheffield and King 1994; Wozencraft, in Wilson and Reeder 2005).
Reig (1997) examined skull variation in samples from North America, Central Europe, and Siberia and concluded that the Old World subspecies subpalmata warrants consideration as a separate species. Reig also suggested that subspecies M. nivalis rixosa of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada may be specifically distinct from M. n. eskimo of Alaska and adjacent Canada. Abramov and Baryshnikov (2000) separated only M. subpalmata as specifically distinct from M. nivalis. Wozencraft (in Wilson and Reeder 2005) noted these proposals but retained all taxa within the species M. nivalis.
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