Table of Contents
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Overview
Brief Summary
Description
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Mammal Species of the World
- Original description: Gray, J. E., 1846. On the cetaceous animals. Pp. 13-53, in The zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Erebus and Terror, under the command of Capt. Sir J. C. Ross, R. N., F. R. S., during the years 1839 to 1843 (Sir J. Richardson and J. E. Gray, eds.) [1844-1875], 1:33. E. W. Janson, London, 2 vols.
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Distribution
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North-West Atlantic Ocean species (NWARMS)
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=2901
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Jefferson, T.A., S. Leatherwood and M.A. Webber. 1993. Marine mammals of the world. FAO Species Identification Guide. Rome. 312 p.
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=2986
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Gordon, D. (Ed.) (2009). New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume One: Kingdom Animalia. 584 pp
http://www.marinespecies.org/porifera/porifera.php?p=sourcedetails&id=145244
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Felder, D.L. and D.K. Camp (eds.), Gulf of Mexico–Origins, Waters, and Biota. Biodiversity. Texas A&M Press, College Station, Texas.
http://www.marinespecies.org/porifera/porifera.php?p=sourcedetails&id=145245
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van der Land, J. (2001). Tetrapoda, in: Costello, M.J. et al. (Ed.) (2001). European register of marine species: a check-list of the marine species in Europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification. Collection Patrimoines Naturels, 50: pp. 375-376
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=1406
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Borges, P.A.V., Costa, A., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., Gonçalves, V., Martins, A.F., Melo, I., Parente, M., Raposeiro, P., Rodrigues, P., Santos, R.S., Silva, L., Vieira, P. & Vieira, V. (Eds.) (2010). A list of the terrestrial and marine biota from the Azores. Princípia, Oeiras, 432 pp.
http://www.marinespecies.org/ascidiacea/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=149079
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Ramos, M. (ed.). 2010. IBERFAUNA. The Iberian Fauna Databank
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=149024
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Gannier, A. (2000). Distribution of cetaceans off Society Islands (French Polynesia) as obtained from dedicated survey Aquat. Mamm. 26(2): 111-126.
http://www.marinespecies.org/cetacea/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=163031
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Range Description
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Geographic Range
The Pacific, or short-finned, pilot whale lives throughout the tropical and warm temperate waters of several oceans and associated seas and bays.
Biogeographic Regions: indian ocean (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )
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UNESCO-IOC Register of Marine Organisms
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=1318
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National Distribution
Canada
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Transient
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Cosmopolitan in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate waters; in North America, north mainly to the mid-Atlantic states and central California (sometimes to Alaska). Generally regarded as abundant within the range (IUCN 1991). See IUCN (1991) for further details.
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Pilot whales are jet black with a white patch on their chin, which may extend dorsally to the anus. They have a large, blubous head, with no beak and a slightly prominent upper lip. There are 7-9 large, conical teeth in each side of the uper and lower jaws. The flippers are short (about 1/5 of body length) and sickle-shaped. The dorsal fin is located further forward on the body than on any other cetacean. There is a median notch on the tail flukes. Sexual dimorphism occurs, with males reaching 5.9 m in length and 3000 kg and females growing to 4 m and 1200 kg.
Range mass: 1200 to 3000 kg.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
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Size
Size in North America
Length:
Average: 5.5 m
Range: 7 m males; 4.3 m females
Weight:
Range: up to 3,000 kg males; up to 1,500 kg females
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Type Information
Catalog Number: USNM A9074
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Mammals
Sex/Stage: Unknown;
Preparation: Skull
Collector(s): C. Scammon
Locality: Locality Unknown, "Coast Of Lower California In Latitude 31 Degrees, Land 10 Miles Distant.", California, United States, North America, North Pacific Ocean
- Type: Cope, E. D. 1869. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 1869: 21.
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Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
This species feeds on vertically migrating prey, with deep dives at dusk and dawn following vertically migrating prey and near-surface foraging at night (Baird et al. 2003).
Although they also take fish, pilot whales are thought to be primarily adapted to feeding on squid. One of the main forms taken off the California coast is the Market Squid (Loligo sp.). Short-finned Pilot Whales show the tooth reduction typical of other squid-eating cetaceans.
Systems
- Marine
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Pilot whales are known to migrate from cold to warm waters.
Aquatic Biomes: coastal
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UNESCO-IOC Register of Marine Organisms
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=1318
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Water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 376 samples.
Environmental ranges
Depth range (m): 0 - 0
Temperature range (°C): 12.570 - 28.782
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.035 - 8.292
Salinity (PPS): 31.668 - 36.629
Oxygen (ml/l): 4.409 - 6.246
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.052 - 1.086
Silicate (umol/l): 0.803 - 12.244
Graphical representation
Temperature range (°C): 12.570 - 28.782
Nitrate (umol/L): 0.035 - 8.292
Salinity (PPS): 31.668 - 36.629
Oxygen (ml/l): 4.409 - 6.246
Phosphate (umol/l): 0.052 - 1.086
Silicate (umol/l): 0.803 - 12.244
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.
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Habitat Type: Marine
Comments: Usually offshore, but moves inshore when squid are spawning (e.g., in spring off southern California) (Leatherwood and Reeves 1983). Exhibits a relatively high degree of site fidelity, at least seasonally (see Stacey and Baird 1993).
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Migration
Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
Makes seasonal offshore-inshore migrations (inshore mainly in spring off southern California) (Leatherwood and Reeves 1983). See also Stacey and Baird (1993).
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Pilot whales ingest about 45 kg of food per day. The main component of diet is squid, although small fish are also eaten.
Animal Foods: fish; mollusks
Primary Diet: carnivore (Molluscivore )
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Comments: Recorded stomach contents include squid (Loligo opalescens) (Seagars and Henderson 1985).
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Population Biology
General Ecology
Commonly in groups of a few to several hundred (average around 20-25); often with dolphins (especially bottlenose). Mass standings sometimes occur.
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Life History and Behavior
Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
Average lifespan
Sex: male
Status: wild: 46.0 years.
Average lifespan
Sex: female
Status: wild: 63.0 years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Pilot whales are polygynous and, in breeding groups, there is a ratio of about 8 breeding females to 1 breeding male.
Mating System: polygynous
Females reach sexual maturity at 7-12 years, males at 15-22 years. The breeding season is spread across the year, gestation lasts 11-13 months, and one calf is born. Weaning occurs at an average of 2 years, although has been known to extend to 6 or even 10 years (these longer periods are found in older mothers). Calves are born at a 7 year interval, and a maximum of 4-5 calves are born in the mother's lifetime. Female reproduction slows after about age 28 years and stops after age 40 years.
Breeding interval: Calves are born at a 7 year interval, and a maximum of 4-5 calves are born in the mother's lifetime.
Breeding season: The breeding season is spread across the year.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Range gestation period: 11 to 13 months.
Average weaning age: 24 months.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 7 to 12 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 15 to 22 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous
Average birth mass: 60000 g.
Average number of offspring: 1.
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Breeding/parturition apparently vary geographically (see IUCN 1991). Gestation lasts about 15 months; young take solid food beginning at 6 months but may continue to nurse for two to several years; females probably stay in their mother's group for life; sexually mature at average age of about 9 (females) to 15 (males) years; females may stop breeding in their 30s; may live several decades (see Stacey and Baird 1993 for further details).
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Evolution and Systematics
Functional Adaptations
Functional adaptation
The skin of pilot whales resists microorganisms thanks to microscopic pores and nanoridges, surrounded by a secreted enzymatic gel which denatures proteins and carbohydrates.
"On the skin surface of delphinids small biofoulers are challenged to high shear water flow and liquid–vapor interfaces of air-bubbles during jumping. This state of self-cleaning is supported by the even, nano-rough gel-coated epidermal surface of the skin. The present study focussed on the intercellular evolution of gel formation and the chemical composition of the gel smoothing the skin surface of the pilot whale, Globicephala melas…In the superficial layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum, intercellular material was shown…to assemble from smaller into larger covalently cross-linked aggregates during the transit of the corneocytes towards the skin surface. XPS measurements showed that the surface of the skin and the intercellular gel included approximately the same amounts of polar groups (especially, free amines and amides) and non-polar groups, corresponding to the presence of lipid droplets dispersed within the jelly material. It was concluded from the results that the gel-coat of the skin surface is a chemically heterogeneous skin product. The advantages of chemically heterogeneous patches contributing to the ablation of traces of the biofouling process are discussed." (Baum et al. 2003:181)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Baum C; Simon F; Meyer W; Fleischer L-G; Siebers D; Kacza J; Seeger J. 2003. Surface properties of the skin of the pilot whale Globicephala melas. Biofouling. 19(Supplement): 181-186.
- Baum C; Meyer W; Stelzer R; Fleischer L-G; Siebers. 2002. Average nanorough skin surface of the pilot whale (Globicephala melas, Delphinidae): considerations on the self-cleaning abilities based on nanoroughness. Marine Biology. 140(3): 653-657.
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Globicephala macrorhynchus
There is 1 barcode sequence available from BOLD and GenBank. Below is the sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species. See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen. Other sequences that do not yet meet barcode criteria may also be available.
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Download FASTA File
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Statistics of barcoding coverage: Globicephala macrorhynchus
Public Records: 2
Specimens with Barcodes: 2
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Contributor/s
Justification
History
- 2008Data Deficient(IUCN 2008)
- 1996Lower Risk/conservation dependent
- 1994Insufficiently Known(Groombridge 1994)
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Pilot whales are conservation dependent, and may be functionally extict in areas such as Newfoundland, but there are still sufficient numbers to support healthy populations of this species.
CITES: appendix ii
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: data deficient
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: NU - Unrankable
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Reasons: Large range; no serious threats.
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Trends
Population
Trend data are not available throughout the range of the species; however, abundance estimates of short-finned pilot whales in the eastern tropical Pacific significantly increased from 1986–1990 to 1998–2000 (Gerrodette and Forcada 2002). There is no information on global trends in the abundance of this species.
Population Trend
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Threats
A small, intermittently active fishery takes around 220 pilot whales per year at St. Vincent, and there are reports of a small fishery at St. Lucia (Bernard and Reilly 1999). Reliable catch data are not available for these Caribbean hunts. The species is also hunted in Indonesia and Sri Lanka, also with no regular reporting of catch levels.
Dolar et al. (1994) reported on directed fisheries for marine mammals in central and southern Visayas, northern Mindanao and Palawan, Philippines. Hunters at four of the seven investigated fishing villages took cetaceans for bait or human consumption, including short-finned pilot whales. These are taken by hand harpoons or, increasingly, by togglehead harpoon shafts shot from modified, rubber-powered spear guns. Around 800 cetaceans are taken annually by hunters at the sites investigated, mostly during the inter-monsoon period of February–May. Dolphin meat is consumed or sold in local markets and some dolphin skulls are cleaned and sold as curios. Although takes and possession were banned in December 1992, the ban did not stop dolphin and whale hunting, but it seems to have decreased the sale of dolphin meat openly in the market.
In U.S. Atlantic waters, pilot whales have been taken in a variety of fisheries (Olson and Reilly 2002). Based on preliminary data, the squid round-haul fishery in southern California waters is estimated to have taken 30 Short-finned Pilot Whales in one year. In the California drift gill net fishery between 1993 and 1995, the mean annual take of Short-finned Pilot Whales was 20 (Bernard and Reilly 1999). About 4 individuals/year are killed in the Hawaii-based long-line fishery (Forney and Kobayashi 2005). Such interactions have also been recorded in the western tropical Indian Ocean (Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, unpublished data). On the other side of the Pacific Ocean, an estimated 350 - 750 G. macrorhynchus die annually in passive nets and traps set in a Japanese fishery (Bernard and Reilly 1999) and an unknown number are taken incidentally by the large-mesh pelagic driftnets off eastern Taiwan. The most common human-related cause of death observed in waters off Puerto Rico and the US and British Virgin Islands were entanglement and accidental captures, followed by gunshots and spear wounds (Mignucci et al. 1999).
This species, like beaked whales, is likely to be vulnerable to loud anthropogenic sounds, such as those generated by navy sonar and seismic exploration (Cox et al. 2006). While conclusive evidence of cause and effect are often lacking, mass stranding events have been spatially and temporally associated with high levels of anthropogenic sound for Short-finned Pilot Whales (Hohn et al. 2006). Around Taiwan and adjacent areas, a series of unusual strandings of short-finned pilot whales coincided with large-scale military exercises in 2004 but whether these strandings were related to the exercises is unknown (Wang and Yang 2006).
Predicted impacts of global climate change on the marine environment may affect short-finned pilot whales, although the nature of impacts is unclear (Learmonth et al. 2006).
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Degree of Threat: D : Unthreatened throughout its range, communities may be threatened in minor portions of the range or degree of variation falls within natural variation
Comments: Population off northern Japan is considered to be at risk (see Stacey and Baird 1993) due to relatively high harvest rates (IUCN 1991). More information is needed on population status and impact of harvest in the Caribbean region (IUCN 1991). Vulnerable to incidental mortality in squid driftnet fishery (IUCN 1991).
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Management
Conservation Actions
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
None known.
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Before international whaling laws were enacted, pilot whales were heavily hunted in the Faroe Islands and Japan for meat and oil. Kills of over 10,000 a year were reported by Japan, and over 100,000 in 300 years (1584-1883) in the Faroe Islands.
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Economic Uses
Comments: Harvested for food and oil by hand-harpoon in certain areas of the West Indies (several hundred per year) (see IUCN 1991 for details). Harvested sporatically in Japan and Okinawa; in Japan, annual catch in recent years has been several hundred (IUCN 1991). Has been commonly displayed in some marine aquaria.
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Risks
IUCN Red List Category
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IUCN (2008) Cetacean update of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=sourcedetails&id=125373
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Wikipedia
Short-finned pilot whale
The Short-finned Pilot Whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus) is one of the two species of cetacean in the genus Globicephala. It is part of the oceanic dolphin family (Delphinidae), though its behaviour is closer to that of the larger whales.
Short-finned Pilot Whales can be confused with their relatives the long-finned pilot whales, but there are various differences. As their names indicate, their flippers are shorter than those of the Long-finned Pilot Whale, with a gentler curve on the edge. They have fewer teeth than the Long-finned Pilot Whale, with 14 to 18 on each jaw. Short-finned pilot whales are black or dark grey with a grey or white cape. They have grey or almost white patches on their bellies and throats and a grey or white stripe which goes diagonally upwards from behind each eye.
Adult males may have a number of scars on their bodies. Their heads are bulbous and this can become more defined in older males. Their dorsal fins vary in shape depending on how old the whale is and whether it is male or female. They have flukes with sharply pointed tips, a distinct notch in the middle and concave edges. They tend to be quite slender when they are young, becoming more stocky as they get older.
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Physical characteristics [edit]
The short-finned whale has a stocky body, a bulbous forehead, no prominent beak, long flippers sharply pointed at the tip, black or dark grey color, fin set forward on body, fluke raised before deep dive, may float motionless at the surface, frequently seen in very large groups, prefers deep water, may be approached. Their diet is composed of fish, squid, and octopus.
Adults males are approximately 18 feet in length whereas adult females only reach about 12 feet in length. Adults can weigh anywhere from 2200 to 6600 pounds. When they are born, short-finned pilot whales are about 1.4–1.9 m (4 ft 7 in–6 ft 3 in) long. At birth, they weigh about 60 kg (130 lb). Males live nearly 45 years whereas females can live up to 60 years.[3]
Behaviour [edit]
Short-finned Pilot Whales are very sociable and are rarely seen alone. They are found in groups of ten to thirty, though some pods are as large as fifty. There have been a few sitings of pods that are over several hundred animals that have also been recorded. Pods are primarily matrilinial, or a female-based society. Some older females have been recording actually taking care of calves that are not their own. Males are polygynous, meaning that they will mate with multiple females at one time or throughout their lives. Pods are often found with approximately one mature male per every eight mature females. Maturing males will often leave their birth school but most females will stay in the same pod their entire lives. They are sometimes seen logging and will allow boats to get quite close. They rarely breach, but may be seen lobtailing (slapping their flukes on the water surface) and spyhopping (poking their heads above the surface). Before diving, they arch their tails and raise them above the surface. When coming to the surface to breathe, adults tend to show only the top of their head, whereas calves will throw their entire head out of the water. Adults occasionally porpoise (lift most of the body out of the water) when swimming particularly quickly.
Females mature at about ten years of age and will start having calves every five to eight years. A female may nurse a calf for up to fifteen years as long as it is the last born calf. Their gestation period lasts just a little over a year, and a female will have anywhere from 4 to 6 calves in her lifetime. A calf will suckle from its mother for a minimum of 2 years but most will for nearly 5 years. It has been recorded that calf still fed from its mother after 15 years. A female will usually stop reproducing once reaching the age of about 40 years. [4]
The short-finned pilot whale primarily feeds on squid, but they will also feed on certain species of fish and octopus. The feed nearly 1000 feet below water or more. This is where they will spend great lengths of time. A pod may spread out up to a half mile to cover more area to find food. They have also been reported to "harass" sperm whales and dolphins, so marine mammals could also potentially be part of their diet.
They are known as the 'Cheetahs of the Deep' for the high speed pursuits of squids at depths of hundreds of metres.
Habitat [edit]
Short-finned pilot whales, unlike their close cousins the long-finned pilot whale, are found in most waters around the world. They primarily like warm tropic waters but usually stay offshore in the deeper waters. They also tend to be found in areas with a high density of squid. There are known populations found in the north Atlantic stretching all the way down to northern South America including the Gulf of Mexico and stretching all the way over to Africa as well. It is thought they migrate south into the western north Atlantic in the late winter/early spring. There are other populations recorded throughout the entire Pacific stretching from Japan to southern Guatemala as well as the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
There are 2 distinct populations off the coasts of Japan that have differences in their anatomy and genetics and could potentially comprosmie more than one distinct species or subspecies. Their exact taxonomy has yet to be verified.[5]
Conservation [edit]
The Short-finned Pilot Whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS)[6] and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS).[7] The species is further included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU[8]) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MoU[9])
Cuisine [edit]
In a very few areas of Japan, mainly along the central Pacific coast, pilot whales are commercially hunted and the meat is available for human consumption. In certain restaurants or izakayas, pilot whale steaks are marinated, cut into small chunks, and grilled.[10] The meat is high in protein and low in fat (a whale's fat is contained in the layer of blubber beneath the skin).[10][11][12] When grilled, the meat is slightly flaky and quite flavorful, somewhat gamey, though similar to a quality cut of beef but with distinct yet subtle undertones recalling its marine origin.[10][11]
See also [edit]
References [edit]
- ^ Mead, J. G.; Brownell, R. L., Jr. (2005). "Order Cetacea". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 723–743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. & Pitman, R.L. (2011). "Globicephala macrorhynchus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 18 January 2012.
- ^ "Short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus)". Arkive.
- ^ "Globicephala macrorhynchus". Whales and Dolphins.
- ^ "Short-Finned Pilot Whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus)". NOAA Fisheries.
- ^ Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas
- ^ Official website of the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area
- ^ Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia
- ^ Official webpage of the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region
- ^ a b c "No Matter How You Slice It, Whale Tastes Unique", Planet Ark (Reuters), 2002, retrieved 14 January 2011
- ^ a b Browne, Anthony (9 September 2001), "Stop Blubbering: Whales are supposed to be protected but that doesn't stop the Japanese killing and eating hundreds of them every year. But does the West's moral outrage over the pursuit of our gentle leviathans amount to anything more than hypocrisy and cultural bullying?", The Observer, retrieved 14 June 2011
- ^ Buncombe, Andrew (2005), "The Whaling Debate: Arctic Lament", Ezilon, retrieved 14 January 2011
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Unreviewed
Names and Taxonomy
Taxonomy
Comments: Two populations off Japan appear to be genetically distinct from each other; there is some evidence that northern and southern "forms" occur in the eastern Pacific (see IUCN 1991).
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