Neotoma floridana can be found from southern South Dakota, south to eastern Texas, east through central Florida, north to the western and Piedmont areas of Maryland, and west following the Appalachian Mountains toward southwestern Nebraska. Some individuals have been found as far east as coastal North Carolina and as far west as Colorado.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

endemic to a single nation

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (20,000-2,500,000 square km (about 8000-1,000,000 square miles)) Distributed over much of the south-central and southeastern U.S., from Nebraska and eastern Colorado east to North Carolina, south to Texas, Gulf coast, and central Florida. Florida subspecies SMALLI of Key Largo is separated from populations in peninsular Florida by about 240 km. Schwartz and Odum (1957) suggested that Neotoma invaded the eastern United States from the Southwest, where the subfamily is well-represented, with one segment of the taxon moving north along the Appalachian Plateau and the other spreading out along the Coastal Plain.

Neotoma floridana is known for its short, stocky body and exceptionally long tail. The tail can be between 15 to 20 cm long. Eastern woodrats have long, soft fur which tends to be a brownish-gray on the back. The fur is darker dorsally and the underside and feet are white. The tail is bicolored; dark brown on the top and white on the bottom. There is a noted seasonal change in pelage color. In winter the dorsal pelage is dark brown to grayish and the sides tend to have a yellowish color. This fades around March to become a more uniform brown color during the rest of the year. The eyes are large, black and tend to appear bulging.

Newborn woodrats have folded pinnae and closed eyes. Birth weight is about 11 to 14 g and length is 87 to 96 mm. The ears unfold at around 9 days and the eyes open in 15 to 21 days. The first molt occurs at 5 to 6 weeks and the second molt follows immediately after the first.

Adults have an average weight of 275 g and average length of 38 cm.

Range mass: 217 to 333 g.

Range length: 34 to 43 cm.

Average length: 38 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Length: 44 cm

Weight: 455 grams

Specimens of N. MAGISTER can be separated from N. FLORIDANA by skull morphological characters (Schwartz and Odum 1957).

While superficially similar in appearance to Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat) and Rattus (black rat), woodrats may be distinguished by their hairy tail (vs. scaly-naked). The woodrat also has larger eyes, a blunter snout, and softer and less coarse fur than do either the Norway rat or black rat (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). In Neotoma, the molar enamel is arranged in prismatic folds, in contrast to the tuberculate molars of Rattus (Adams 1987).

• Terrestrial

Neotoma floridana is an eastern woodland species but has also been observed in the grasslands of the Midwest and coastal areas of the Southeast. Eastern woodrats inhabit deciduous forests in mountainous areas, swamps and marshes in coastal areas, and sometimes inhabit abandoned buildings.

Range elevation: 1740 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural

Comments: Wooded areas, ravines, floodplain forest; swamps and osage orange and other hedges in some areas in southern U.S. The coastal subspecies has been found in a wide variety of habitats, including lowland deciduous forests from Florida northward to southeastern North Carolina, generally inside or near edges of forests, primarily deciduous forest. Other habitats include low, wet areas, ranging from marshes (Svihla and Svihla 1933) to swamps and swamp hammocks (Bangs 1898, Harper 1927, Chamberlain 1928, Hamilton 1953). In Georgia and Florida, habitat is wet areas in hammocks and densely vegetated swamps, where nests are built in hollow trees or along stream banks in dense tangles of cabbage palmetto (Golley 1962, Hamilton and Whittaker 1979). Pearson (1952) recorded greatest abundance in ecotones between dry and wet hammocks in Florida. Harper (1927) described habitat in the Okefenokee Swamp as cypress bays, hammocks, swamps, and sometimes sphagnaceous bogs.

David Webster (UNC-Wilmington) suggested that the species is habitat-specific and confined to particular soil types. Preferred habitat in North Carolina consists of low-lying deciduous forests with a dense cover of palmetto (Sabal minor). The Rocky Point, Pender County, population is restricted to an unusual woodland dominated by dense shrub layer of SABAL MAJOR established on a unique soil (Pender Series) with a very shallow, acidic A-horizon and a slightly alkaline B-horizon (Webster et al. 1987). The habitat there appears to be similar to the palmetto forests of Florida where woodrats are relatively abundant.

Young are born in a nest in a rocky crevice, in or under a tree, in a brush pile, in an abandoned building (Schwartz and Odum 1957), or in a similar site; rarely in the lower branches of a tree. In the Midwest nests generally are sheltered by a stick house (Hayes and Harrison 1992). Nest commonly is used in successive years, may become quite large. Harper (1927) described a nest of sticks and other debris that filled a hollow cypress stump and rose to a height of three feet. Chamberlain (1928) described South Carolina nests that were two feet in height and three feet in diameter and constructed in tangles of grape and Smilax. Golley (1962) wrote that nests are often supported by a log, constructed in a stump or hollow, or even several feet off the ground in vine tangles. Working in Gulf Coast Florida, Pearson (1952) described nests in barns, hollow logs, and subterranean chambers under stumps, tree bases, and root masses. Nest sites were not excavated to any extent by the rats themselves. The majority of nests described by Pearson were found in dense tangles of low shrubs with only small midden heaps scattered around them. Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described typical woodrat nests as being large, 1.5 to 4 ft in diameter and > 3 ft in height. The internal nest cavity was typically 5-8 inches in diameter and carefully lined with finely shredded bark, leaves or grass. The exterior was a jumbled mass of sticks, dried grass, leaves, and assorted rubbish (old bones, pieces of metal, small rocks, etc.) collected by the rat. Nests were left open at the top in sheltered areas, but were roofed over in exposed situations such as in low trees and shrubs. Nests were used all year and, in some cases, for an entire lifetime. Woodrats continually added to their nests and established nests might have several levels and nest cavities.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Eastern woodrats are known for their foraging and caching habits. They store fruits, seeds, and leaves in their large middens to eat during the winter. They also include many non-food items in midden collections, such as jewelry, paper wads, bottle caps, and other shiny objects, which they seem to be curious about. In one study, Martin et al. (1951) reported that 5 to 10% of their diet was made up of oak (Quercus) acorns. Two to five percent of the diet is made up of greenbrier (Smilax species), goldenrod (Solidago), and prickly pear (Opuntia). Sumac (Rhus), mesquite (Prosopis), and walnut (Juglans), each constituted 0.5% of the diet.  Insects are reported as making up a very small portion of the diet as well.

Animal Foods: insects

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Frugivore , Granivore , Lignivore)

Comments: Feeds opportunistically on seeds, nuts, fruits, fungi, buds, stems, roots, and foliage. Fall and winter diet may be dominated by stored nuts and seeds (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Woodrats in Florida consumed the mast of most vegetation in their environment, preferring young shoots and leaves when available (Pearson 1952). Occasionally eats invertebrates (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981).. Food is often stored in and around the nest, particularly dry food for winter. Fall food collection is a major activity (Webster et al. 1985). In Kansas, foraged within 21 m of house (see Wiley 1980). Detailed descriptions of food habits may be found in Rainey (1956), Pearson (1952), and Wiley (1980).

Eastern woodrats are known for their large middens, which may become valuable habitat to other animals. They are prey for raptors, large snakes, and mammalian predators, and they influence plant communities through their seed predation and caching. Common parasites of this species include: warble flies (Cuterebra species), ticks (Ixodes species), mites (Eutrombicula species), fleas (Orchopeas species), chiggers (Trombicula species), and nematodes (Longistriata species).

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• warble flies (Cuterebra species)
• ticks (Ixodes species)
• mites (Eutrombicula species)
• fleas (Orchopeas species)
• chiggers (Trombicula species)
• nematodes (Longistriata species)

The most common predators of eastern woodrats are great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), black snakes (Elaphe species), and timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus). Eastern woodrats avoid predation by being mostly active at night, taking refuge in their large dens, and being vigilant for predator activity. They are also cryptically colored.

Known Predators:

• great horned owls (Bubo virginianus)
• spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius)
• long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata)
• black snakes (Elaphe species)
• timber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Many occurrences.

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Generally uncommon (Chamberlain 1928, Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Lee et al. 1982, Wester et al. 1985), but total population size certainly is in excess of 10,000 individuals.

The nests of N. MAGISTER and presumably N. FLORIDANA provide shelter for a large array of other animals, including rabbits, white-footed mouse, snakes, toads, salamanders, as well as spiders and many other invertebrates (Merritt 1987).

Woodrats use communal latrine sites and urination sites (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Merritt 1987). Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described piles of oval droppings as much as 45 cm in diameter. Latrine areas appear to be used over extended periods of time and by more than one individual.

Pearson (1952) inferred from the distribution of nest sites that woodrats may be at least partly colonial. Other authors have described the woodrat as largely solitary and aggressive, sharing their houses only during the breeding season and when rearing young, and with most captured animals carrying scars apparently from fighting with conspecifics (Hamilton and Whitaker 1979, Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Nowak and Paradiso 1983).

Merritt (1987) described the closely related N. MAGISTER as territorial, engaging in aggressive displays of foot thumping and teeth chattering to challenge conspecifics at nest sites.

Schwartz and Schwartz (1981) described home ranges in Missouri as 0.3 ha for males and 0.2 ha for females. Goertz (1970) calculated home ranges of 0.26 ha for males and 0.17 ha for females in Oklahoma.

Density was estimated at 7.6/ha over 851 ha at Key Largo, Florida (Humphrey 1988). Abundance is poorly correlated with abundance of sign (Humphrey 1988). Population density in Pennsylvania) was 1-4/ha. Densities of 5-8 adults per ha are probably high for the species (Burt and Grossenheider 1976). Shows some homing ability (Lay and Baker 1938).

Wiley (1980) suggested that the black rat snake (Elaphe obsoleta) and the long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata) are potential predators because their size allows them to enter woodrat houses.

Eastern woodrats only squeal during fights or if injured. Typically, noises are made by grinding teeth or thumping the hind feet. The thumping usually occurs as a result of anger or fear. They have a highly developed sense of smell and their hearing is also extremely good. The vibrissae located at the front of the face are used for tactile sensing and help rats navigate in the dark.

Communication Channels: acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: vibrations

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic ; vibrations

Comments: Woodrats are active all year and do not hibernate, but may remain in their nests for extended periods during inclement weather (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). They are largely nocturnal (Wiley 1980, Alan 1987); most active during first few hours of darkness.

Eastern woodrats have been reported living up to 8.6 years. Most eastern woodrat mortality, however, occurs in the first year of life.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 8.6 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 3.0 years.

Mating relationships are first determined by establishing dominance. If the male establishes dominance then most likely the pairing will result in offspring. If the female becomes dominant then the male is often killed during fighting. When a successful mating pair is established, the male will follow the female around drumming his hind feet and sniffing the perineal area of the female. If the female is receptive, she will assume a position ideal for copulation. If copulation does not happen immediately, the female will start to pursue the male. She follows him around until copulation occurs. Once breeding is complete, the pair does not associate further and males are likely to try and make other attempts at breeding.

Mating System: polygynous

Breeding season is typically from February to August, although there are some instances of year-round breeding. The gestation period is 31 to 36 days. When young are born they are cleaned then immediately attach to a teat. Young remain attached to one of their mother's teats until they are 3 to 4 weeks old. The litter size ranges from 1 to 6, with 2 and 4 being most common. Females born early in the year may breed as early as their first summer, males begin to breed in the year after their birth.

Breeding interval: Females generally give birth once a year.

Breeding season: Neotoma floridana breeds from February to August and sometimes into late September.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 6.

Average number of offspring: 3.

Range gestation period: 31 to 36 days.

Range weaning age: 3 to 4 weeks.

Range time to independence: 70 to 90 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 5 to 6 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Average birth mass: 13.43 g.

Average number of offspring: 3.5.

Females are responsible for all parental care. Young are born in an altricial state, with their eyes and ears closed. After young are born, females defend the nest and nurse the young for 3 to 4 weeks. They remain attached to her teats until they are weaned and then disperse at from 70 to 90 days old. The caching behavior of the mother has also been shown to influence future caching behavior in offspring.

Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female)

Breeds March-October in Oklahoma, mainly February-October in Kansas, apparently all year in Florida and coastal Georgia, all year except reduced in winter in Oklahoma (Golley 1962, Pearson 1952, Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Nowak and Paradiso 1983). Females are polyestrous with a cycle of 4-6 days. Gestation probably lasts about 33-39 days (Hamilton 1953). Litter size is usually 2-4 (average 3) (Pearson 1952, Hamilton and Whitaker 1979), with up to 2-3 litter per year. Young experience a rapid gain in weight, adding 113 g in 36 days (about 3.1 g/day) in captivity (Hamilton 1953). Wild N. MAGISTER gained about 1.5 g/day during the first two months of life (Merritt 1987). The young are altricial with eyes opening in 15-21 days (Hamilton 1953, Hamilton and Whitaker 1979, Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Sexual maturity is reached in less than one year and some females, though not males, may breed in their first season (Wiley 1980). Adults appear to live at least three years in the wild (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, Merritt 1987). Neotoma may have a reproductive potential that is "considerably lower" than other cricetid rodents, based on life span (Golley 1962, Schwartz and Schwartz 1981).

While Neotoma floridana is considered secure globally, there are a few subspecies in certain regions that are of concern. Neotoma floridana illinoensis has been considered a species of special concern and is monitored by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Neotoma floridana floridana is considered threatened by the North Carolina Natural Heritage Program. Neotoma floridana smalli (Key Largo woodrats) is listed as endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. According to McCleery et al. (2006), the decline in the population is due to habitat fragmentation and degradation, parasites, and predation by feral cats. Key Largo woodrats are isolated on the island of Key Largo, Florida. Almost half of the species' original home range has been lost since the early 1970s. There are approximately 850 ha of suitable land left on the island, most of which is found within two protected areas: Dagny Johnson Key Largo Hammock Botanical State Park and Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Wide distribution and numerous occurrences in the southeastern and south-central U.S.; generally uncommon; population trend is not well documented.

Other Considerations: Populations encompassed by the range of subspecies FLORIDANA as mapped by Wiley (1980) evidently are secure in the heart of the range in Georgia and Florida.

Global Short Term Trend: Unknown

Comments: Appears never to have been abundant over much of the range, but few data are available on population trends.

Degree of Threat: C : Not very threatened throughout its range, communities often provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure over the short-term, or communities are self-protecting because they are unsuitable for other uses

Comments: The primary threat in the southeastern U.S. is probably habitat loss. Human modification of Coastal Plain habitats, including forestry practices that favor pine monocultures, fire suppression, and development (golf courses, residential, etc.), probably are putting increasing pressure on remaining populations. The requirement for mature lowland hardwoods in the rapidly developing Southeast puts the species at particular risk. Removal of abandoned buildings and barns might also be harmful by removing potential nesting places. While the species is probably secure over most of its range, several subspecies of eastern woodrat have undergone declines in recent years. The main threat in North Carolina appears to be habitat loss. The population on Bald Head Island, Brunswick County, was extirpated in 1966, and the Scotts Hill population was destroyed by 1987 when the area was converted to a pine plantation. While the woodrat persists at Rocky Point, much of the lowland forest habitat there was destroyed by the construction of Interstate 40. Predation is a threat for all herbivore species. Stayer (1994) pointed out that feral cats can be a serious threat in developed areas. Woodrats have been shown to suffer from many ecto- and endoparasites and, while the effects of these parasites on Neotoma populations remains unknown, Alan (1987) suggested that at least one population in Florida may have been extirpated by an outbreak of ticks. In addition, the drastic decline in numbers of N. MAGISTER populations may be due, at least in part, to parasitism by the raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) (Norris 1992). Neal (1967; cited in Alan 1987) suggested that fluctuations in woodrat populations in the Mississippi River Basin may be linked to abundances in acorn crops, and other authors have linked fluctuations to extreme weather conditions (Fitch and Rainey 1956, Nawrot and Klimstra 1976). Hall (1988) pointed out a correlation between gypsy moth spread and woodrat declines in Pennsylvania, suggesting that depressed acorn production may impact woodrat over-winter survival (see Norris 1992). See McMurry et al. (1993) for information on the effects of herbicide use and prescribed burning on woodrat populations in Oklahoma.

Restoration Potential: Recovery/restoration potential is essentially unknown.

Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: In addition to including favorable habitat conditions, preserves should not be subject to high levels of human activity.

Management Requirements: In general, little or no direct management is required for the species. Because mature hardwood forest appears to be the primary habitat type, burning as a management tool is probably not important. Cutting of timber or removal of old buildings near forests might adversely affect the species. Insuring the availability of mast-producing hardwoods and the proliferation of sources of soft mast is of primary importance as is protection from harassment.

Many of the management recommendations made by Hassinger and Dunn (1989) for Pennsylvania populations of N. MAGISTER would be beneficial for Coastal Plain populations of N. F. FLORIDANA as well, including: 1) Contiguous areas of suitable habitat, with Neotoma occupying any portion of it, should be protected from any surface disturbance or fragmentation. 2) Surface disturbance should be discouraged within 200 m of active colonies (the primary foraging zone). 3) A diversity of mature, mast producing trees should be left within 50 m of contiguous woodrat habitat occupied by the species. 4) Logging should be discouraged within 200 m of the "center" of active colonies and logging roads should be likewise excluded. 5) If a streambottom occurs within 400 m (1320 ft) of an active colony, a minimum disturbance corridor at least 100 m (330 ft) in width should connect the colony site to the stream corridor.

See McMurry et al. (1993) for information on the effects of prescribed burning and herbicide use.

Management Research Needs: Population cycles and dispersal behavior are unknown. It may be that habitat alteration in the vicinity of the remaining colony in North Carolina may be occurring so rapidly that the populations do not have an opportunity to increase or emigrate into other suitable areas. Population levels in North Carolina are probably so low that significant dispersal may be impossible.

Effort is needed to acquire life history information on stable populations, including food habits, home range, and other specific habitat requirements. This is particularly important in light of significant population declines of other subspecies. Many authors have described the subspecies as uncommon, but field survey and monitoring is required to understand the range and population status and trends of the species. In particular, research is needed to investigate the association between woodrat population dynamics and hardwood mast production, which appears to be linked to the decline of N. MAGISTER in the Northeast.

Global Protection: Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Probably there are many protected occurrences.

When eastern woodrats live near farms they are often considered pests. These woodrats, however, do very little economic harm to crops.

Eastern woodrats have no known economic value.

Stewardship Overview: This woodrat inhabits a diverse array of lowland, often wet, areas in swamps, hammocks, flatwoods, and riparian areas. It appears to be most abundant in areas of dense vegetation at wetland/upland ecotones and requires the availability of abundant hard and soft mast. Hard mast availability within the foraging range (up to approximately 200 m from the nest site) may be particularly important for over-winter survival. Preservation and perpetuation of well-stocked, mature stands of mast-producing hardwoods is important to the maintenance of woodrat populations. This species appears never to have been abundant over much of its range, but few data are available on population cycles or dynamics. Consequently, survey and monitoring of existing populations are recommended.

Comments: Neotoma magister formerly was included in this species. Evidence from analyses of variation in mtDNA, allozymes, and morphology indicates that N. magister is a highly distinct lineage (Hayes and Harrison 1992, Hayes and Richmond 1993).

Most available data indicate that the distinctions among named subspecies of N. floridana are not reliable. MtDNA comparisons indicate that subspecies haematoreia is not at all distinct from subspecies floridana and probably does not represent a valid taxonomic entity (Hayes and Harrison 1992). Hayes and Harrison (1992) found no mtDNA restriction site differences between subspecies baileyi and campestris and stated that further study is needed to determine the taxonomic status of these groups. Based on mtDNA data, subspecies smalli of Key Largo, Florida, has diverged little from subspecies floridana of peninsular Florida, but Hayes and Harrison (1992) suggested the retention of smalli as a subspecies based on behavioral characteristics and the disjunct distribution.

May hybridize with N. micropus, but introgression along the narrow contact zone has been judged as insubstantial (see Musser and Carleton, in Wilson and Reeder 1993, 2005).