Table of Contents
Overview
Distribution
Range Description
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Geographic Range
Franklin's ground squirrels live in the northern part of the American tallgrass prairie. They occur from the southwest of Ontario west to central Manitoba, south through central North Dakota and central Kansas. They are found as far east as west-central Indiana, and northwest to the Lake Michigan shore in the Michigan City-Chicago area. They also occur through southern Wisconsin and central Minnesota. (Baker, 1983)
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
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National Distribution
Canada
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) The range is restricted chiefly to the prairies of north-central United States and south-central Canada, including the area from east-central Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and Manitoba south through Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, and northwestern Indiana (Hall 1981, Ostroff and Finck 2003). Populations are discontinuous.
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Franklin's ground squirrels are larger than the average ground squirrel. They have a slender and elongated body that measures 355 to 410 mm in total length, tail length measures 120 to 158 mm. The pelage is and short salt-and-pepper colored and the tail is bushy. The head and tail are grayish as a result of of alternating bands of black and white on the individual hairs. The feet are pale gray and the ears are short and ovate. Males are heavier than females and winter and summer weights vary significantly. Males range from 370 to 500 g in spring, upon emerging from hibernation to 570 to 950 g in late fall, before entering hibernation. Female weights range from 340 to 425 g in spring and 500 to 760 g in fall. (Baker, 1983; Nowak,1991)
Range mass: 340 to 950 g.
Average basal metabolic rate: 2.19 W.
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Size
Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
It is not colonial, but lives in loose colonies. Densities of 10-20/ha have been recorded (Banfield 1974). Populations appear cyclic and peak every 4-6 years. During peak years it may occur in densities of 30/acre (74/ha) (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). In central South Dakota, the annual home range was 25 ha for males, 9 ha for females (Choromanski-Norris et al. 1989).
The breeding period is immediately after hibernation in early spring. Gestation lasts 28 days, with young being born in May or June. Litter size is 5-11 (average 7); with one litter per year. Young are weaned in 40 days.
Although prairie habitats may be stable or increasing, other Franklin’s Ground Squirrel habitats may be declining. The availability of suitable cover and soil structure for burrows contribute to limiting their distribution. Burrows must be deep to be insulated from heat and cold, and must be well drained. This species seems to prefer to burrow in embankments (river and ditch banks; Kennicott 1855) or berms (highway and railroad rights-of-way; Ellis 1982). This may be because:
1) there is better drainage;
2) embankments and berms often consist of less tightly packed soil, allowing easier digging; or
3) tunnels need to be shorter.
Elevated railroad right-of-way beds seem to provide acceptable habitats, as well as dispersal corridors. In fact, in states for which data exist, populations of S. franklinii have become largely restricted to railroad rights-of-way, and to some lesser extent prairie fragments. Ellis (1982) points out that such rights-of-way usually have a diversity of dicotyledonous plants and a mixture of weedy and native species. Occasionally populations are also found in road rights-of-way, prairie cemeteries, forest/grassland edges, fencerows, and fallow fields and pastures. While prairies are no longer declining dramatically in acreage, railroad right-of-way habitats are being lost to changing management techniques and abandonment. Encroachment by woody vegetation on abandoned rights-of-way may provide less suitable conditions for S. franklinii. It requires adequate vegetative cover, and are not found in areas with short grasses resulting from frequent mowing (more than once a year) or herbicide treatments (Benjamin 1991, Lewis and Rongstad 1992, Hofmann 1999). It is possible that right-of-ways are more often mowed or treated with herbicide by railroad maintenance crews than in the past.
Systems
- Terrestrial
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Habitat
Franklin's ground squirrel can be found in the tallgrass prairie areas of the northcentral United States and adjacent parts of Canada. They live at the border between grassy areas and woody vegetation because of the diverse food sources available (Baker, 1983). These squirrels are not often seen because of their preference for densely vegetated areas.
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland
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Comments: This species has a strong affinity for tallgrass and mid-grass prairies. It also uses riparian areas (marsh edges), forest-field edges, fields, hedgerows, and unmowed strips along railroad rights-of-way and roadsides. It generally avoids shortgrass habitats. Nests are in underground burrows.
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Migration
Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Franklin's ground squirrels' diet consists of tough vegetable fibers and hard-shelled seeds and fruits. They feed on the vegetative parts of grasses, clovers, mustard, dandelion, strawberry, thistle and other plants. Seeds and fruits as well as cultivated crops such as corn, oats, wheat and a variety of garden vegetables are also part of their diet. Franklin's ground squirrels also eat some animal material, including beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, crickets, ants, small birds, ducks, deer mice, frogs, toads, birds' or ducks' eggs, and even other ground squirrels. (Baker, 1983)
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Comments: Plant foods comprise 2/3 of diet, animal food, 1/3. Vegetable matter such as fruits, seeds, grains preferred as well as insects.
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Associations
Known predators
Bubo virginianus
Based on studies in:
Canada: Manitoba (Forest)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- R. D. Bird, Biotic communities of the Aspen Parkland of central Canada, Ecology, 11:356-442, from p. 406 (1930).
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Known prey organisms
Corylus
Prunus
Amelanchier
Symphoricarpos
Anas americana
Based on studies in:
Canada: Manitoba (Forest)
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- R. D. Bird, Biotic communities of the Aspen Parkland of central Canada, Ecology, 11:356-442, from p. 406 (1930).
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
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Population Biology
Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300
Comments: This species is represented by a large number of occurrences (subpopulations).
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Global Abundance
10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals
Comments: Total population size is unknown but likely much larger than 10,000. This species appears to be uncommon over much of its range but locally abundant in some areas.
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General Ecology
Not colonial, but lives in loose colonies. Densities of 10-20/ha have been recorded (Banfield 1974). Populations appear cyclic and peak every 4-6 years. During peak years may occur in densities of 30/acre (74/ha) (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). In central South Dakota, annual home range was 25 ha for males, 9 ha for females (Choromanski-Norris et al. 1989).
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Life History and Behavior
Cyclicity
Comments: Primarily diurnal, but less conspicuous than other ground squirrels. Less than 10% of time is spent above ground (Sowls 1948). Begins hibernation by late September.
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Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 7.2 years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
There is a great deal of rivalry during courtship among males in their pursuit of a female. Musky discharges from the anal glands play a role in the sex attracting process. The mating phase of the reproductive process is completed by mid-April. The gestation period is about 28 days. The young are born in May or June. Franklin's ground squirrels have one litter annually, which contains from 5-10 babies (average 7). At birth the young are naked and blind but at ten days old fuzzy hair appears. At 20 days their eyes open and they can emit whistle calls. At 30 days the young venture outside and at 40 days the weaning process is completed. By the time winter comes, the young are almost adult size. The young squirrels are not interested in mating until after hibernation at the end of their first year. (Baker, 1983; Nowak, 1991)
Average gestation period: 28 days.
Average number of offspring: 7.5.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 327 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 327 days.
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Breeding period is immediately after hibernation in early spring. Gestation lasts 28 days. Young are born in May or June. Litter size is 5-11 (average 7); 1 litter per year. Young are weaned in 40 days.
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Justification
History
- 2003Vulnerable(IUCN 2003)
- 1996Lower Risk/least concern(Baillie and Groombridge 1996)
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Conservation Status
Franklin's ground squirrels are relatively rare throughout their range, though they may be locally abundant. In recent decades populations throughout the midwestern United States have declined dramatically. They are now listed as endangered in Iowa, a species of special concern in Wisconsin, rare in Iowa, and populations in Illinois are in decline.
(Pergams, 2002)
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Reasons: Franklin's ground squirrel has a wide range and is represented by many occurrences (subpopulations). Area of occupancy, number of subpopulations, and population size appear to have declined in the southern and eastern portions of the range. The magnitude and recent rate of decline are unknown (this species is relatively difficult to detect) but probably less than 30% over ten years or three generations. The species remains numerous and is represented by many apparently viable populations in the northern portion of the range.
Intrinsic Vulnerability: Not intrinsically vulnerable
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Trends
Population
However, in view of extensive loss of prairie habitats, together with available data that document declines in both area of occupancy and extent of occurrence, it is likely that S. franklinii has declined to the level of rarity in the USA. On the other hand, while there has been some additional loss of prairies in the last 10 years, it is probable that in recent years more acres of prairie have been restored than have been lost. In addition, S. franklinii is not exclusively associated with prairie vegetation. Under these circumstances, it is unclear why populations of S. franklinii are still declining.
Population Trend
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Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable to decline of 30%
Comments: The range-wide rate of decline over the past or next 10 years or three generations is unknown (e.g., see Martin et al. 2003) but probably less than 30 percent.
Global Long Term Trend: Decline of 30-50%
Comments: Declines have occurred in the southeastern portion of the range in Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin, where most historical prairie habitats have been converted to intensive human uses (Johnson and Choromanski-Norris 1992, Lotter 1994, Bowles 1998, Anthony 1999, Martin et al. 2003). However, the recent and projected magnitude and rate of decline are unknown "due to the inherent difficulties in locating this elusive species" (Martin et al. 2003). Also, "the disappearance of local populations of Franklin's ground squirrel may not always be attributable to extirpation, but could result from a tendency for colonies to shift their areas of occupancy in response to naturally occurring perturbations, such as an increase in ectoparasite load within burrow systems or the presence of predators" (Martin et al. 2003). The species apparently remains common in the northern half of the range. In fact, it is sometimes regarded as a pest because it is a significant predator of duck eggs in parts of the northern Great Plains (see review in Ostroff and Finck 2003).
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Threats
Threats
The historical distribution of S. franklinii is from Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois northward to Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba, coinciding with former mid- and tallgrass prairie habitats. Such habitats have been greatly reduced, with 82.6–99.9% declines in the extent of tallgrass prairies in 12 states and one Canadian province since European settlement (Bowles et al. 1998). Prairie mammals, such as the Prairie Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii), Prairie Vole (Microtus ochrogaster), and Franklin’s Ground Squirrel have suffered as a result (Bowles et al. 1998, Pergams and Nyberg 2001).
In the eastern part of its range, S. franklinii is found primarily in small linear habitats. The continuing decline could be the result of the difficulty of dispersing individuals finding a suitable unoccupied habitat. It is known that male juveniles disperse (Ellis 1982, Benjamin 1991), but it is unknown for what distance. Perhaps juvenile mortality has increased so much (automobiles and trains are obvious potential sources) that they rarely find suitable habitats during dispersal.
Population fragmentation and isolation may also have longer-term effects through declines in vigour due to loss of genetic variability. Occupation of small, isolated habitat patches, as is the case in the USA, may hamper successful dispersal and promote inbreeding. It seems to be faring appreciably better in Canada (perhaps suitable habitat patches are larger and less isolated), although Canadian populations are also apparently declining. Habitat changes in Canada may be less detrimental. For example, in Canada, fire suppression has resulted in the succession of prairie to aspen parkland, where S. franklinii continues to be found. Although the habitat has changed, large contiguous tracts have been preserved, whereas in the USA only smaller prairie fragments and rights-of-way continue to provide habitat for S. franklinii.
It opportunistically eats the seeds, fruits, and foliage of a great variety of plants, but vegetation probably does not comprise the majority of its diet. It has been thought to be an agricultural pest, and has at times been systematically exterminated. Millions of S. franklinii were killed for bounties ranging 1–10¢ per skin in the late 1800s (Bailey 1893). However, there is little evidence that they cause much crop damage. Spermophilus franklinii may be the least herbivorous of the ground squirrels, eating as much or more insect and other animal matter as vegetation (Bailey 1893, Ellis 1982, Hofmann 1999). There is, in fact, some evidence that they avoid row crops, and are only occasionally found in cover crops (Benjamin 1991). On the other hand, there is good evidence that S. franklinii opportunistically preys on waterfowl eggs, and there has been some extermination of the species for that reason (Sowls 1948, Balser et al.1968, Lynch 1972).
"Poison peanuts" (pelleted peanuts and zinc phosphide) are often ploughed into the ground by highway departments to control plains pocket gophers (Geomys bursarius); this probably affects S. franklinii in areas with both species. Pesticide use has played, and may still play, a role in the decline of this species. Scott et al. (1959) describe "virtually annihilative losses" of S. franklinii in areas treated with dieldrin, a pesticide banned in 1974. Deleterious effects from other pesticides still in use are possible.
Internal parasites known to infest S. franklinii are the protozoans Eimeria franklinii and Trypanosoma hixsoni, the cestode Hymenolepsis diminuta, and the nematodes Capillaria chandleri, Citellinema bifurcatum, Physaloptera masino, Rictularia citelli, and Weinlandia citelli (Jackson 1961, p. 142).
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Comments: Decline in the southern portion of the range evidently has been due primarily to habitat loss from urban development, agricultural expansion, and conversion to row crops (Johnson and Choromanski-Norris 1992), but pesticide use also may have played a role (see Martin et al. 2003). The species is not threatened in large areas of the northern portion of the range.
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Management
Conservation Actions
There have been at least two introductions of S. franklinii, both in Illinois and both were failures. The first attempt (van Petten and Schramm 1972) succeeded for a number of years and was reportedly doing well in the late 1980s (Hoffmeister 1989: 163-164), but when the site was surveyed in 2001 by Martin et al. (2002), no squirrels were caught. The second attempt (Panzer and Schipp 1986) may have failed because of lack of dispersal possibilities from a small, urban site (Martin et al. 2002).
Recent literature and conversations indicate populations of S. franklinii exist in the following protected areas. Alberta: Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Lakeland Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Long Lake Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Sir Winston Churchill Provincial Park (Alberta ERM); Illinois: Barnhart Grove Prairie Restoration (Champaign County Soil and Water Conservation District); Indiana: Clark and Pine Nature Preserve (Indiana DNR), Gibson Woods/Shell Oil Nature Preserve (Lake County Parks Dept.); Manitoba: Belair Provincial Forest (Manitoba ERM), Grand Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Riding Mountain National Park (Canadian Wildlife Service), St. Ambroise Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Spruce Woods Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Winnipeg Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM); Saskatchewan: Douglas Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Duck Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Good Spirit Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Moose Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), St. Denis National Wildlife Area (Canadian Wildlife Service); Wisconsin: Chiwaukee Prairie (Wisconsin DNR/The Nature Conservancy).
Recommended Action:
1. Initiate metapopulation study to determine rates and distances of S. franklinii colonization events. Study factors that influence colonization and extinction rates.
2. Initiate genetic studies to determine genetic diversity and structure of S. franklinii metapopulations.
3. Initiate studies of stable populations to help understand basis for population size change.
4. Acquire and preserve other lands inhabited by S. franklinii.
5. Improve census information in all 14 states and provinces.
6. Improve knowledge of vegetation and soil required by this species.
7. Initiate cooperative agreements with railroads for management of rights-of-way inhabited by S. franklinii populations (e.g., stop frequent mowing and treating with herbicide).
8. Acquire for preservation abandoned railroad rights-of-way inhabited by S. franklinii populations, especially those connecting larger preserves.
9. Identify extent to which S. franklinii is controlled by farmers and ranchers. Design a program compatible with conservation of S. franklinii and economic needs of farmers and ranchers.
10. Assess effect of "poison peanuts" on S. franklinii. If S. franklinii is impacted, modify control program to mitigate effect on S. franklinii.
11. Assess effect of pesticides on S. franklinii. If S. franklinii is impacted, modify pesticide program to mitigate effect on S. franklinii.
12. Initiate a public education program about S. franklinii.
13. Initiate captive breeding and translocation program reintroducing animals to suitable habitats.
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Management Requirements: Periodic cultivation or removal of herbaceous vegetation may inhibit use of upland duck-nesting habitat by ground squirrels (Choromanski-Norris et al. 1989).
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Global Protection: Many (13-40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed
Comments: Populations occur in many protected areas, including the following listed by Pergams and Nyberg: Alberta: Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Lakeland Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Long Lake Provincial Park (Alberta ERM), Sir Winston Churchill Provincial Park (Alberta ERM); Illinois: Barnhart Grove Prairie Restoration (Champaign County Soil and Water Conservation District); Indiana: Clark and Pine Nature Preserve (Indiana DNR), Gibson Woods/Shell Oil Nature Preserve (Lake County Parks Dept.); Manitoba: Belair Provincial Forest (Manitoba ERM), Grand Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Riding Mountain National Park (Canadian Wildlife Service), St. Ambroise Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Spruce Woods Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM), Winnipeg Beach Provincial Park (Manitoba ERM); Saskatchewan: Douglas Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Duck Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Good Spirit Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), Moose Mountain Provincial Park (Saskatchewan ERM), St. Denis National Wildlife Area (Canadian Wildlife Service); Wisconsin: Chiwaukee Prairie (Wisconsin DNR/The Nature Conservancy).
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Franklin's ground squirrel are sometimes considered nuisances to prairie farmers and gardeners. In years with a high population of Franklin's ground squirrels, they have been seen as serious competitors for agriculturists' grains and vegetables (Jones and Birney, 1988; Baker, 1983)
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Franklin's ground squirrels disperse the seeds of many plant species.
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