This species generally ranges through much of continental and insular Southeast Asia. On the mainland, it has been reported from southern Myanmar, southern Viet Nam (possibly southern Cambodia), through much of Peninsular Malaysia to Singapore. The species is found over much of Indonesia, being recorded from the islands of Sumatra, Bangka, the Mentawi Islands (Sipura, North Pagai and South Pagai), the Krakatau Islands, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sumba, Savu, the Anamba Islands, the Natuna Islands (Bunguran Besar) and Siantan. It is present on the island of Timor (East Timor and Indonesia), and on Borneo (Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia). The species is present throughout the Philippines, except for the Batanes/Babuyan region. There are records from the Philippines islands of Bohol, Bongao, Boracay, Cabo, Catanduanes, Culion, Leyte, Guimaras, Luzon (Abra, Cagayan, Ilocos Norte, Isabela, La Union, Quezon [Paguntalan pers. comm. 2006], Tarlac provinces), Marinduque, Mindanao (Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Cotabato, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, North Cotabato, South Cotabato, Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga del Sur provinces and Bongo Island), Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Polillo (Alviola 2000), Tantangan, Dinagat (Gunther 1879) and Romblon (Timm and Birney 1980). In the Philippines it has been recorded from sea level to around 1,250 m asl. Outside of Southeast Asia, there is a report from Shaanxi in China (Smith and Xie 2008), and the species has been reported to be present in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. However, as there are no voucher based records of this species from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and its presence within India is doubtful and it is not mapped here (C. Srinivasulu and Sanjay Molur pers. comm. 9 September 2007).

Pteropus vampyrus is found from Madagascar to Australia and in mainland Asia and Indonesia. It occurs in most of continental and insular Southeast Asia; from southern Myanmar and southern Vietnam through Malaysia to Singapore. It is present throughout most of Indonesia. This species is also found in southern Burma and southern Thailand and extends to the east Philippines, Sumatra, and Timor. Pteropus vampyrus is native to China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam.

Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )

Pteropus vampyrus is one of the largest bats in the world. Forearm length ranges from 180 to 220 mm, mean wingspan is 1.5 m, and body mas ranges from 0.6 to 1.1 kg. It has long pointed ears and a dog-like or fox-like face and head. Pelage varies in color and texture with age and sex . Upper dorsal fur is short and stiff, with longer, woolier fur on the venter. Head and upper body are covered with a dark mantle ranging in color from mahogany-red to black, and the venter is often darker than the rest of the body. Its wings have short rounded tips. Except for parts close to the body and the edge of the wing membrane, wing membranes lack fur. Young are born with dark skin and fur but become paler as they develop. Males have thicker and stiffer pelage than females and glandular neck tufts with dark bases. Pteropus vampyrus is different from most Pteropus in that it has darker underparts and a dark mantle. For example, P. giganteus and P. lylei have pale underparts that contrast with the darker dorsal pelage. Pelage color occasionally varies as a few P. vampyrus specimens have lighter mantles, and some have a gray or silver venter.

Large flying foxes have robust skulls, with a nearly complete orbit and a thick, wide zygomatic arch. The postorbital processes reaches more than halfway to the zygomatic arch. The dental formula is 2/2, 1/1, 3/3, 2/3 for a total of 34 teeth. Upper canines have a prominent anterior groove and a smaller groove on the inner surface.

Range mass: 0.6 to 1.1 kg.

Average wingspan: 1.5 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently

Type for Pteropus vampyrus
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Mammals
Sex/Stage: Male;
Preparation: Skin; Skull
Collector(s): E. Mearns
Year Collected: 1903
Locality: Pantar, Near Lake Lanao, Mindanao, Lanao Del Sur Province, Philippines, Asia
Elevation (m): 581

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Large flying foxes inhabit tropical forests and swamps. They occur primarily in secondary forests and use agricultural areas during forging bouts. Populations also occur on oceanic islands. During the day, groups often roost in large trees. Roost sites are often used for many years and trees become stripped of bark and foliage by the bats' sharp claws. Roosting trees are often found in mangrove forests, coconut groves, and mixed fruit orchards. Studies in Subic Bay, Philippines have shown that foraging locations range between 0.4 and 12 km from the roost. They prefer undisturbed forests in lowlands, beaches, and mangroves, for roosting and select against disturbed and agricultural areas. Large flying foxes are commonly found in riparian areas.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest

Wetlands: swamp

Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; riparian

Large flying foxes feed on flowers, nectar, and fruit such as bananas and mangos. Common foods also include the pollen and flowers of coconut, durian, and fig trees. When foraging, they slice the rind with their teeth and extract the fruit with their long tongue, which is also used for lapping up nectar. They can carry up to 200 g of food at a time. On a daily basis, large flying foxes can eat half of their body weight in fruit.

Plant Foods: leaves; fruit; nectar; pollen; flowers

Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )

Flying foxes are important frugivores in tropical forests. They serve as seed dispersers and pollinators of forest trees, including durian, which produce a high-priced fruit that is considered a delicacy in southeast Asia. Members of the genus Pteropus are often the only seed dispersers or pollinators large enough to carry the large fruit they feed upon. They also pollinate canopy trees when searching for nectar. Seed dispersal by large flying foxes is thought to play an important role in the regeneration of cleared forests. They are host to the parasitic nematode Litmosa maki, which inhabits the abdominal cavity. In malaysia, ectoparasites from the families Laelapidae, Nycteribiidae, and Spinturnicidae have also been reported.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• parasitic nematode (Litmosa maki)
• mites (Laelapidae)
• mites (Spinturnicidae)
• bat flies (Nycteribiidae)

Pteropus vampyrus is commonly hunted for food and sport throughout its geographic range. In peninsular Malaysia, an estimated 22,000 flying foxes are legally hunted each year. No other information exits on potential predators of this species. Its nocturnal and roosting lifestyle likely decreases risk of predation.

Known Predators:

• Humans (Homo sapiens)

During flight, Pteropus vampyrus tends to remain silent. During feeding, however, it is often very noisy. Returning to the roost at dawn is also associated with loud vocalizations, which are used in territorial behavior and to help maintain inter-individual spacing at roost sites. Evidence suggests that P. vampyrus vocalizes to communicate emotion as well. It uses vision rather then echolocation for in-flight navigation, and they find food using their acute senses of sight and smell.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Other Communication Modes: choruses ; pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Pteropus vampyrus can live 15 to 30 years in captivity, and an average of 15 years in the wild.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 15 years.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 15 to 30 years.

Maximum longevity: 20.9 years (captivity) Observations: This is the largest species of the genus in wingspan (Ronald Nowak 1999).

Pteropus vampyrus is most often polygynous, with males protecting a small harem and mating with up to ten females. Dominant males occupy the best roosting sites, and there is a social hierarchy among males.

Mating System: polygynous

Unlike other pteropods, which have fused horns on the baculum, Pteropus vampyrus has a saddle-shaped baculum. It ranges from 4.5 to 8.2 mm and is wider than it is long. Females typically give birth to only one offspring per year. Synchronous birthing occurs within each population, and timing depends on local geography and seasonality. In peninsular Malaysia, mating peaks from November to January. In Thailand, birthing peaks during March and April and in the Philippines it peaks during April and May. In captive populations, birthing peaks during May and June. Mean body mass newborns is 133g (20-30% of maternal body mass) and their forearm length is around 79.5 mm. Mothers carry their young during the first few days after parturition, then leave them at the roost during foraging bouts. Young are weaned by 2 to 3 months after birth.

Breeding interval: once yearly

Breeding season: Mating season varies according to local geography and climate

Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 140 to 192 days.

Average birth mass: 133 g.

Range weaning age: 2 to 3 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Pteropus vampyrus offspring are born with eyes open and fully furred, but in many ways are altricial. They are carried with the mother initially, then left in the roost after a couple of days so that the mother can feed. Mothers nurse young for the first 2 to 3 months after parturition, or until weaning is complete, which can be anywhere from 3 to 5 months. All parental care is provided by the mother, though males often help protect and defend their harem.

Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Male); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There are 2 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 2
Species: 2
Species With Barcodes: 1

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species classifies Pteropus vampyrus. Its populations are in significant decline, and major threats include chronic over-harvesting and the destruction of its primary habitats. If harvesting continues at its current rate, P. vampyrus could disappear from western Malaysia in as little as 6 years. In the Philippines, major threats include hunting and targeting due to noise. Hunting of P. vampyrus has more than doubled since 1996. Likewise, in 2003, an estimated 4,500 large flying foxes were killed in a single location and sold into trade. Habitat destruction due to deforestation is also a major threat to their persistence in Malaysia.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists Pteropus vampyrus under Appendix II. Efforts to conserve P. vampyrus are underway, and hunting laws have been established to reduce harvest rates. Unfortunately, anti-poaching laws and harvest limits are difficult to enforce. Currently, colony management on small islands appears to be the most effective protection of P. vampyrus. Due to its migratory behavior and its tendency to travel long distances during nocturnal foraging bouts, a more regional management approach may be necessary to successfully conserve this species.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: near threatened

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Conservation Actions

In some areas, large flying foxes are viewed as agricultural pests, as forage sites often include fruit farms. They are also exceptionally noisy while feeding, and many farmers use flapping or whirling devices and bright lights to deter them. Large flying foxes carry a number of zoonotic diseases such as the Hendra virus and the Nipah virus. Nipah virus first appeared in humans in Malaysia in 1998, followed by cases in Bangladesh and India. Evidence suggests that large flying foxes are reservoirs for a number of different henipaviruses, including Nipah. In particular, it is suspected that this species was the reservoir hosts of the 1998 Nipah outbreak in pigs and humans. The long distance movements of large flying foxes increases its potential to transfer these diseases to other countries in the Australian and Asian regions.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease

As a pollinator and seed disperser, Pteropus vampyrus plays an important role in maintaining forest structure and composition throughout its geographic range. Humans hunt P. vampyrus for sport, and there is a significant international market, both legal and illegal, for its meat and the various by-products that are used in traditional medicines. For example, its fat is valued in Pakistan, where some believe it helps cure rheumatism, and others claim that its meat can help cure asthma. Shipments of P. vampyrus carcasses have been confiscated on numerous occasions in Guam, and trade continues to be monitored.

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material; source of medicine or drug