Within their large camps, little red flying foxes roost in close proximity and in tight clusters, often causing large limbs of rainforest trees to snap off under the sheer weight of so many bats on a single branch (8)! During the breeding season between November and January (the Australian late spring, early summer) males establish territories within these roosts, from which they actively defend a harem of two to five females from other males (3) (4). After mating, females establish small groups consisting exclusively of females, which are maintained until young are born five months later in April to May (3). Females carry their young during flight for the first four to six weeks of life, after which the infant is left at the roost while they forage at night. At two months, young will move and fly around between the trees within the camp (4). Sexual maturity is typically reached between 18 months and 2 years of age (3). This nectar specialist primarily feeds on the nectar and pollen of eucalyptus blossoms (4) (7), although the diet also includes flowers, fruit, growing shoots, bark, sap and insects and fruit orchards are occasionally raided when food is scarce, much to the irritation of farmers (2) (4). Little red flying foxes may fly over 80 km a night visiting different trees (7) and, like other flying foxes, use their excellent sense of sight and smell to find their food (9).

As its common name suggests, the little red fox has a conspicuously reddish tinge to its fur and is one of the smallest of the Pteropus species (4) (6). The fur on the head is often grey and the leathery wings are reddish-brown and appear semi-translucent in flight (4) (7). This species is an efficient climber, using its jointed thumbs and its feet to clamber with great agility about the branches of a tree (8).

This species is widespread in western, eastern, and northern Australia (including Boigu and Thursday Islands in the Torres Strait), and is also known from a single collection of four skulls from Western Province, Papua New Guinea (Bonaccorso 1998; Helgen 2004; Birt et al. 2008). Vagrants occur to the south of the main range, including to Kangaroo Island. It ranges from sea level to 300 m asl.

Little red flying foxes (Pteropus scapulatus) are primarily found in Australia and have the largest distribution of any other member of the genus Pteropus within Australia. Occasionally, these bats have been seen as far away as Papua New Guinea. There has also been one sighting of an individual in New Zealand. Although little red flying foxes occur throughout Australia, they are particularly abundant in northern Australia.

Biogeographic Regions: australian (Native ); oceanic islands (Native )

Found throughout Australia in Queensland, the Northern Territory, Western Australia, New South Wales and Victoria, but particularly abundant in the north (2) (3). Occasionally individuals have been seen as far away as Papua New Guinea, and there has also been one sighting of an individual in New Zealand (3).

Little red flying foxes are medium-sized bats. The average wingspan of P. scapulatus males varies from .9 to 1.2 m. Weights of these males can can reach 550 g. There is no relevant literature available pertaining to body length and basal metabolic rate of P. scapulatus. However the body length of black flying foxes (Pteropus alecto) is known to range from 240 to 260 mm.

After winter solstice, the testicular size and body weight of males increase.

Range mass: 550 g (high) g.

Range wingspan: 0.9 to 1.2 mm.

Average wingspan: 1.0 mm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Average basal metabolic rate: 1.353 W.

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Little red flying foxes occur throughout coastal regions as well as arid landscapes of inland Australia. Limited knowledge from recent studies suggests that these bats often congregate at camps in riparian habitat, such as fresh/saltwater mangroves, bamboo, and closed forests. Selection of such congregation sites may be determined by seasonal variation, as well as by other factors; such as human hunting, natural catastrophe regimes, and climatic fluctuations.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest

Wetlands: swamp

Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; riparian

During the day, colonies known as 'camps' can sometimes have as many as one million bats. The little red flying fox roosts in the trees of a broad range of habitats including eucalypt forests, woodland, paperbark swamps, mangroves and bamboo thickets (4). This species is nomadic, venturing from coastal to rainforest to dry inland areas (8), following the seasonally varying flowering and fruiting cycles of different trees (2) (4).

Little red flying foxes are known to primarily feed on blossoms of eucalyptus trees. However, it is currently uncertain what the importance of eucalyptus foliage is in their diet. It has been suggested that Pteropus species obtain high amounts of calcium from calcium-rich vegetation such as eucalyptus. There is some suggestion that P. scapulatus follows the foraging resources of eucalyptus blooms throughout the landscape. No other information pertaining to the foraging habits of little red flying foxes is currently available.

Plant Foods: fruit; nectar; flowers

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore , Frugivore )

Little red flying foxes are important for the pollination and seed dispersal of native flora within Australia.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates

Limited information is available on the predators of Pteropus species. In many states throughout Australia, P. scapulatus is considered a pest, and  is subject to large-scale hunting and poisoning by humans.

Known Predators:

• Homo sapiens

Species within Pteropus are frugivores and do not echolocate. No information on the communication of P. scapulatus is available; however, generally Pteropus species are known to communicate with loud vocalizations. While roosting, vocalizations are emitted by adults and juveniles at frequencies that are audible to the human ear. Communication by such vocalizations occurs during agonistic behaviors, escaping agonistic behaviors, and by females when males attempt to copulate with them. Vocalizations by juveniles help mothers identify their young after foraging.

In addition to vocal communication, tactile communication is important between mates and between mothers and their offspring.

Chemical communication is important in some species of Pteropus, especially in helping males mark territories during breeding season. Although this behavior has not been reported for this species, it is possible that similar scent cues are used.

The role of visual signals, such as body postures, has not been investigated.

Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

No information is available on the life span of this species. However, other members of the genus are reported to have lived as long as 30 years in captivity. As flying mammals typically have lifespans longer than expected based solely upon their body size, it is likely that P. scapulatus has a similarly long lifespan.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 15.8 years.

Maximum longevity: 15.8 years (captivity)

Females and males congregate in large camps, especially during the 2-month mating season and during the 5 months of lactation. As many as 1 million individuals are known to congregate at a single camp.

Studies suggest that most females are associated with males in harem groups during the mating season. After mating, females establish small groups consisting exclusively of females. These small female groups are maintained until young are born.

Mating System: polygynous

The breeding season of P. scapulatus occurs between the Australian spring months of November and December. It and appears to be regulated by circannual endogenous rhythms. Young are born 5 months later in April to May. Many species in the genus Pteropus undergo delayed implantation, so it is possible that the actual time of development is not as long as the gestation period indicates. Lactation in this genus lasts between 3 and 6 months, although data are not available on its duration for P. scapulatus. Sexual maturity is typically reached between 18 months and 2 years of age.

Breeding interval: These bats breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs in November and December.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 4 to 5 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; delayed implantation

Average number of offspring: 1.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

Sex: male: 540 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 540 days.

Young bats are not able to fly from birth, and so may be called altricial. In some Pteropus species, the mother carries her young with her for a few months. There are no data on this behavior P. scapulatus. Lactating Pteropus females raise their young close to adult size before they are weaned. Females must contribute close to all of the calcium that is required to the developing skeletal system of the offspring. As a consequence, females often suffer from osteoporosis. Females with osteoporosis have a greater chance of breaking bones necessary for flight. Without the ability to fly, there is a high probability that females with broken limbs will die from starvation.

There are no data available on the role of males in parental care.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There is 1 barcode sequence available from BOLD and GenBank.   Below is the sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen.  Other sequences that do not yet meet barcode criteria may also be available.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 1
Species: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

Pteropus scapulatus is considered common, and is legally protected in Australia. This species does not qualify for endangered, threatened, or vulnerable status and is considered a taxon of least concern.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1) and listed on Appendix II of CITES (5).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Like other Australian flying foxes, the little red flying fox is vulnerable to loss of suitable feeding and roosting sites due to clearance of native vegetation by forestry operations and for agriculture and urban development (10). In many states across Australia, flying foxes are considered orchard pests and in the past have been subjected to large-scale hunting and poisoning by farmers (3). An additional threat claiming the lives of hundreds of little red flying foxes and other wildlife is ensnaring on barbed wire fences, which are almost institutionalised in beef and dairy farming. At sunrise, returning bats often fly low to the ground to reduce wind resistance and many do not see the barbed wire fences until it is too late. The barbs puncture the delicate membrane of the bats' wings, and the frantic victims' struggles only cause further entanglement, while attempts to chew the wire to free themselves often mean the animal gets caught further by its mouth. The wings become torn, the fine wing bones smashed and, frequently, the upper palate is punctured or completely fractured. Unless rescued by humans, death is swift, and at least 40% of those recovered in time are too badly damaged to be released back into the wild (7).

Conservation Actions

Since most of the bats are snared on the top strand of the barbed wire fence, it has been advocated that the top strand should be replaced with smooth, galvanised wire as an obvious solution to the problem (7). Fortunately, the little red flying fox remains common in Australia, where it is legally protected, and is not considered endangered (3).

In regions of fruit production, this species is considered a pest because of its tendency to feed upon agricultural crops.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

Pteropus scapulatus contributes to the pollination of plants that are important for humans, including trees used for lumber, food, and medicine.

Positive Impacts: pollinates crops