Livingstone's flying fox is predominantly nocturnal, but unlike most bats it is also active during the late afternoon, when it flies from roost sites to feeding sites where forest trees are fruiting. The flying fox locates fruit with its well-developed vision and sense of smell (2), and feeds throughout the night, resting intermittently (5). These flying foxes feed primarily on fruit juices; they squeeze pieces of fruit pulp in their mouths, swallow the juice and then spit out the pulp and seeds (6). Their diet is predominantly fruit from native tree species, though it varies seasonally (8). They also feed on the flowers of native plants, to obtain the nectar, and occasionally leaves are consumed too (5). Because of this fruit and flower diet, Livingstone's flying fox plays an important role as a forest pollinator and seed dispersal agent (7). Livingstone's flying foxes roost in tall trees in medium to large, often noisy, colonies (2) (6), in which there is a defined social structure, based on dominance. Male flying foxes mark a territory by rubbing branches with the strong musky scent produced by glands in the neck and shoulders, and a dominant male may also use this to mark females that share his roosting or feeding territory, in an attempt to deter other males from mating with her (2). Livingstone's flying foxes breed seasonally, generally at the beginning of the rainy season, between August and October, when food is plentiful (2). Heavily pregnant females cluster in groups away from the males, and give birth the 'right' way up, by clinging onto a branch with their thumbs. The pups can usually cling to their mother straight after birth, and then climb to one of the mother's nipples, where they feed while tucked safely under her wing. At about three weeks of age, the young are left in a 'crèche' at night while the mother flies off to feed (2).

Livingstone's flying fox is one of the largest bats in existence, and also has the regrettable distinction of being among the most threatened (2). It has dark brown to black fur, with rusty- or ginger-tipped hairs across the shoulders and in the groin area (2). While they are bats, flying foxes, (also known as Old World fruit bats), are named after a different animal because their elongated muzzles give them a distinctly foxy appearance (2). The orange-brown eyes of Livingstone's flying fox are large, reflecting this bat's well-developed vision (4). This species does not use echolocation, but exhibits typical mammalian hearing, and thus has simple, rounded ears (4) (5).

This species is endemic to the Union of the Comoros, where it is only found on the islands of Anjouan and Moheli. On Anjouan, the species avoids lower parts of the island below 300 m asl, but it has been recorded feeding on Moheli at 40 m asl.

Pteropus livingstonii (Comoro black flying fox) is found on only two islands in the Comoro island chain, just off the coast of Africa. These islands are Nzwani, also called Anjouan, and Mwali, also called Moheli.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: island endemic

Occurs on the islands of Anjouan and Moheli in the Union of the Comoros, an island nation in the western Indian Ocean (6).

Comoro black flying foxes have black pelage with golden or tawny tinges on the rump, sides of the belly, and at times on each shoulder. They have unique, semicircular ears. Both of these features distinguish them from other pteropodids. They weigh from 500 to 800 grams, have a wingspan up to 1.5 meters, and are about 30 cm in body length.

Range mass: 500 to 800 g.

Average length: 30 cm.

Average wingspan: 1.5 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Comoro black flying foxes prefer dense, upland mountain forests which have steep sided valleys.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest

Livingstone's flying fox inhabits forests, above 200 metres on Moheli and above 500 metres on Anjouan. Its roost sites are generally found on southeast facing slopes that receive morning sun and are shaded from noon through late afternoon, in valleys with rivers running though (7).

Comoro black flying foxes are frugivorous. In the dry season they tend to be much more selective on what and where they feed, preferring fig trees. A very important tree for P. livingstonii and P. seychellensis is the giant-leaved fig tree (Ficus lutea). This tree is chosen over many other fig trees. In the rainy season Comoro black flying foxes feed on a larger variety of fruits because more are available.

Plant Foods: fruit; flowers

Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )

Members of the genus Pteropus are important in the dispersal of seeds in the forests they inhabit. They are often seen as keystone species because they maintain forest regeneration patterns.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates

Humans are primary predators of P. livingstonii, both for food and as a secondary result of forest destruction. Other predators have not been documented, but large arboreal snakes and raptors make take young and adults.

Known Predators:

• humans (Homo sapiens)

In general, Pteropus species use olfaction to find fruiting trees and determine if fruit is ripe enough to eat. They have good vision and often use vocalizations to communicate. Like most mammal, chemoreception is important in communicating sexual receptiveness.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

There is very little information known about the longevity of Comoro black flying foxes in either captivity or in the wild. Other Pteropus species are known to live up to 30 years in captivity, and around 10 years or more in the wild.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 15 years.

Maximum longevity: 15 years (captivity) Observations: One 15 years old specimen is still alive in captivity (Richard Weigl 2005).

Comoro black flying foxes are polygynous. Females will mate with more than one male throughout their lifetime and males attempt to mate with as many females as they can. Males do not stay around after mating, leaving the females to raise and care for the young.

Mating System: polygynous

The breeding season for P. livingstonii is from January through June. Gestation lasts 4 to 6 months, after which a single young is born between July and October. Young are weaned within 4 to 6 months of being born.

Breeding interval: Comoro black flying foxes breed once each year.

Breeding season: Comoro black flying foxes breed from January through June.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 4 to 6 months.

Range weaning age: 4 to 6 months.

Average time to independence: 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

There was no information specifically on parental investment in P. livingstonii. In general, members of the genus Pteropus form maternity colonies where females and their young gather. Females forage at night and return to their young in the maternity roost to nurse them.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Justification

History

• 2004
  Critically Endangered
• 1996
  Critically Endangered
• 1994
  Endangered
  (Groombridge 1994)
• 1990
  Endangered
  (IUCN 1990)
• 1988
  Endangered
  (IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1988)

Comoro black flying foxes are one of the most critically endangered bat species, with an estimated population size of 400 individuals. Rapid destruction of the forest habitats they rely on indicates these flying foxes may become extinct within 10 years.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered

Classified as Critically Endangered (CR) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1), and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Once abundant in the vast forests of Anjouan and Moheli, extensive deforestation has led to the worryingly small populations of Livingstone's flying fox in existence today (9). Native forests of the Comoros Islands continue to decline rapidly, at a rate of 5.6 percent per year (7), as forests are under-planted with, or cleared for fruit, coconuts, manioc, maize, peas, sweet potatoes and cloves (5) (9). Cyclones pose another serious threat; major cyclones in 1983 and 1984 were believed to have a significant impact on the Moheli population (9). It is believed that without urgent action, these incredible bats may be extinct within 25 or 50 years (5).

Conservation Actions

A conservation action plan for Old World Fruit Bats, which includes Livingstone's flying fox, was published in 1992 by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which outlined a number of measures required for the survival of this species. One recommendation was the establishment of a captive breeding programme (9), which was quickly initiated. In 1992, five male and one female Livingstone's flying foxes were imported to the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (now the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust). This captive population increased in 1993 with the addition of five more males and another female, and five further females were added in 1995 (10). The programme has apparently been successful, with (as of 2002) 42 individuals existing in captivity in three colonies at Jersey and Bristol zoos (11). In 2007, a new comprehensive plan, called the Conservation Action Plan for Livingstone's Flying Fox was developed for the species and its habitat. This plan identified a conservation strategy focusing on actions such as habitat protection, forest management, environmental education, population monitoring, captive breeding, and ecological research. Initial steps are now underway to implement this plan (12). In the wild, Livingstone's flying fox has the support of two voluntary non-governmental organisations, Action Comores International and Action Comores Anjouan, whose primary aims are the conservation of this critically endangered species. This is achieved through surveys and monitoring, ecological research, protecting the flying fox and its habitat, and educating local communities on the importance of the bats and the forests they inhabit (11). Such measures are not only greatly beneficial for Livingstone's flying foxes, but address environmental problems in the Comores and emphasize the importance of fruit bats to forests and people worldwide (11)

There are no adverse effects of Comoro black flying foxes on humans.

Comoro black flying foxes are sometimes food for humans. They are also important members of their native ecosystems, helping to disperse fruiting tree species and sometimes pollinate plants.

Positive Impacts: food ; pollinates crops