Very little is known about the natural ecology and behaviour of the greater bamboo lemur. Groups composed of 4 to 7 individuals (and occasionally up to 12) have been observed but little else is known about their social structure and interactions (3). As its common name suggests, this species specialises on eating bamboo, a trait that is highly unusual amongst mammals (5). Almost 98% of the diet is made up of this low-energy food, especially giant bamboo (Cephalostachium viguieri). These lemurs prefer the inner pith of the plant, stripping away the outer layers in a destructive manner (3).

Prolemur simus is the largest of the bamboo lemurs (5). A dense olive-brown coat covers the rounded body, whilst the underparts and tail are grey-brown in colour with a russet tinge (3). As well as its large size, the greater bamboo lemur can be recognised by the prominent pale grey or white ear tufts (3). However, a recently discovered population of this species has a strikingly different deep golden-red coat, and no ear tufts (3). The blunt muzzles of bamboo lemurs give their faces a more rounded appearance than other members of the family. They have relatively long tails and long back legs for leaping vertically amongst the trees of their forest habitat (3).

Subfossil remains confirm that this species once had a widespread distribution in Madagascar that covered the northern, north-western, central and eastern portions of Madagascar, including Ampasambazimba in the Itasy Basin (west of Antananarivo), the Grotte d?Andrafiabe on the Ankarana Massif, and the Grottes d?Anjohibe near Mahajanga and Tsingy de Bemaraha (Mittermeier et al. 2008).

Today, the species has a much diminished range in the south-eastern and south-central rainforests of Madagascar. Wright et al. (2008), who estimated that P. simus now occupies only about 1-4% of its historical range, reported confirmed sightings of Greater Bamboo Lemurs in only 11 of 70 survey localities with a latitudinal range of 18°52' to 22°26'S. Five of these sightings were in or around the protected areas of Ranomafana National Park (Miaranony, Talatakely and Ambatolahy Dimy), and Andringitra National Park (Manambolo, Camp 2). An additional unconfirmed observation occurred here (Korokoto). Another five sightings were in unprotected forests at Kianjavato and Karianga, and outside Evendra, Morafeno and Mahasoa. Finally, they were observed in Torotorofotsy, the only locality north of Ranomafana National Park situated about 10 km north-west of Andasibe. The elevation range for confirmed sightings is 121?1,600 m (Wright et al. 2008).

Greater bamboo lemurs, Prolemur simus, are currently endemic to Madagascar.  Although subfossil remains indicate they once had a widespread distribution covering the northern, north-western, central, and eastern parts of Madagascar, this species currently occupies only 1 to 4 % of its original historical habitat. Greater bamboo lemurs are generally restricted to the protected areas of Ranomafana National Park located in southeastern Madagascar. Sightings of these lemurs are few although there have been a few sightings of lemur populations living in the Andringrita Massif and near Vondrozo in Madagascar.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: island endemic

Endemic to Madagascar, fossil evidence suggests that the greater bamboo lemur was originally widespread in northern, central and eastern areas of the island (3). Today, however, this species is restricted to areas in and around the Ranomafana National Park of southeastern Madagascar, although data on distribution is scarce and populations may also exist in the Andringitra Massif and near to Vondrozo (3).

Greater bamboo lemurs are the largest bamboo-eating lemurs found in Madagascar. They have a head and body length of 40 to 45 cm and a tail length of 43 to 48 cm. Their tails and back legs are relatively long. Females weigh up to 2.1 kg whereas males weigh up to 2.4 kg. Their coat color ranges from a reddish-grey to an olive brown. A prominent feature of this species is the presence of tufts of white fur by their ears. However, a recently discovered population of this species, golden bamboo lemurs, have a deep golden-red coat and surprisingly no ear tufts. Greater bamboo lemurs have a blunt muzzle which gives their face a rounded appearance distinguishing them from other members of their family.

Range mass: 2.1 to 2.4 kg.

Range length: 40 to 45 cm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Greater bamboo lemurs reside in humid primary rainforests in which giant bamboo trees are abundant. They make their homes in bamboo thickets. This species has been recorded at elevations of 121 to 1,600 m.

Range elevation: 121 to 1600 m.

Habitat Regions: tropical

Terrestrial Biomes: rainforest

Found in humid primary rainforests where there are giant bamboo trees (Cephalostachium viguieri) (2) (3).

98% of the diet of greater bamboo lemurs consists of the bamboo species Cathariostachys madagascariensis, giant bamboo. Greater bamboo lemurs have molars specialized for bamboo. It is unknown how their metabolism processes the cyanide found in bamboo shoots; the amount consumed in one day would be enough to kill a human. Feeding habits of greater bamboo lemurs vary with the season. Between July and November these lemurs consume the pith of the giant bamboo. They have powerful jaws which are used to tear apart the wooden bamboo poles and obtain the soft pith inside. In December when the new bamboo starts appearing, this species switches to bamboo shoots. The other 2 % of its diet consists of flowers, leaves, soils, and fruits. The greater bamboo lemur also eats mature leaves that the other bamboo lemur species will not.

Plant Foods: leaves; fruit; flowers

Other Foods: detritus

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )

Greater bamboo lemurs may act as seed dispersers for bamboo and other plants. They are also prey to fossa. Very little research, however, has been conducted regarding how this species impacts the local ecosystem.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

The only confirmed predator of the greater bamboo lemurs are fossa, although certain raptors are also suspected to prey on lemurs. Human hunters also have been known to target lemurs, including this species.

Known Predators:

• Cryptoprocta ferox
• Humans Homo sapiens

Greater bamboo lemurs have two calls used for communication: the contact call and the alarm call. The contact call is a powerful yelping sound that acts as a group-cohesion signal. Its intensity rises and falls rapidly with the progression of the call. The alarm call is sounded when individual lemurs are disturbed or frightened by other animals in the forest. It begins as a low-pitched roar that decreases in intensity the longer the call lasts. The alarm call has 2 parts, which sound something like "ouik-grrraaa," that are emitted in rapid sequences.

Communication Channels: acoustic

Perception Channels: visual

The lifespan of greater bamboo lemurs is currently unknown.

Maximum longevity: 17.6 years (captivity)

Greater bamboo lemurs are polygynous, but little other information is available regarding the mating systems of this species.

Mating System: polygynous

Greater bamboo lemurs mate between May and June, and they give birth during the transitional dry and wet seasons in November. The average gestation period is 142 to 149 days. Each female gives birth to only 1 young. The young are weaned after about 8 months, and male offspring disperse from their natal social group between 3 and 4 years of age.

Breeding season: Greater bamboo lemurs mate between May and June.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 142 to 149 days.

Average weaning age: 8 months.

Range time to independence: 3 to 4 years.

Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Mother greater bamboo lemurs take care of their young and remain with them until they are about 5 weeks old. Between 7 and 8 weeks of age, the infant nurses less and begins to explore areas farther away from its mother.

Parental Investment: female parental care ; pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Currently, greater bamboo lemurs have the smallest population size of any other lemur species in Madagascar. In 20 years of regional surveys, only 12 groups of greater bamboo lemurs totaling less than 100 individuals have been documented. In Ranomafana National Park during a 400 day census only 3 groups were found totaling 20 individuals. Their habitat is threatened by slash-and-burn agriculture, illegal logging, and the extensive cutting down of bamboo. In some areas greater bamboo lemurs are being hunted with slingshots and snares. The IUCN lists this species are critically endangered.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: critically endangered

Classified as Critically Endangered (CR A2cd) on the IUCN Red List 2002 (1), and listed on Appendix I of CITES (4).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

The rainforests of Madagascar are being widely cleared by slash-and-burn techniques and this habitat destruction is one of the major threats to the survival of the greater bamboo lemur (3). Bamboo is also being cleared in some areas, and this lemur is targeted by hunters in other regions (3). The known range of the greater bamboo lemur is highly restricted and this implies further threats to survival (3).

Conservation Actions

The greater bamboo lemur is protected within two areas in Madagascar, however, even within Ranomafana National Park the native trees are being exploited and this species is at risk (3). Further research into these little-known lemurs is urgently needed and more extensive surveys of the area may well reveal further isolated populations in need of protection (3).

There are no known adverse effects of Prolemur simus on humans.

Because the the greater bamboo lemur is endemic to Madagascar and endangered, they may play a role in the tourism economy of Madagascar.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism