The Formosan rock macaque has a multimale-multifemale social system, with groups averaging around 45 individuals occupying partially-overlapping territories (5) (7). However, the recent decline in numbers has meant that groups are often much smaller, typically ranging between two and ten individuals, and may more closely resemble a unimale system (4) (5). While females remain in their natal group, existing within a female hierarchy, males disperse shortly after adolescence, at around five years of age (5) (7). However, relatively low-ranking females have been observed splitting from their natal group to form new troops where they may find higher status. Low-ranking sub-adult and old adult males within a troop are peripheralised by the dominant alpha male, and often form coalitions. Most challenges for the alpha-male position are made during the breeding season, when competition for access to sexually receptive females is fierce (7). The breeding season is between November and January, with births occurring from April through to June, peaking from mid-April to mid-May (5) (7). Females start to breed at between four and five years of age (7), after which they usually produce a single offspring every other year, with older females giving birth every year (5). Gestation lasts around 165 days and, in most macaques, nursing lasts about a year, with the majority of parental care provided by the mother. Young are usually completely independent after two years, although females often retain life-long associations with their mother and other female kin (5). Formosan macaques are a diurnal, ground-dwelling species, comfortable in areas with few or no trees. A variety of foods are consumed, including fruits, leaves, berries, seeds, buds, young shoots, insects and small vertebrates, and these macaques reportedly also raid crops (5).

This medium-sized, quadrupedal monkey has a soft, dark grey to brown coat, which is greyer in winter and a drabber olive-brown colour in summer (4) (5). The hairless face is salmon-pink and includes large cheek pouches that are used to carry food whilst foraging (4) (5).

This species is endemic to Taiwan. The main distribution rests on the central mountain range, with some local subpopulations scattered in peripheral lowland forest remnants. The extent of occurrence, estimated by the total forested area in Taiwan, was 19,501 km². Although once thought to have once been associated with coastal areas, it is now largely confined to inland hills owing to human activity.

Introduced feral subpopulations have become established at four localities in Japan: Oshima (south of Tokyo), Nojima (south of Nagoya), Wakayama prefecture (south of Osaka, where it has hybridized with Macaca fuscata), and the Shimokita Peninsula (northern Honshu) (Fooden and Wu 2001).

Formosan rock macaques (Macaca cyclopis) are found in the mountainous terrain of northeastern and southwestern Taiwan. They may once have been associated with the sea coast but have now been largely restricted to inland hills because of human activity (Kuntz and Myers, 1969).

Biogeographic Regions: oriental (Native )

Historic Range:
Taiwan

The Formosan rock macaque is native to the island of Taiwan, where it primarily occupies the mountainous areas in the north-eastern and south-western parts of the island (4) (5). Although the species is thought to have once been associated with coastal areas, it is now largely confined to inland hills because of human activity (5). This macaque has also been introduced to a few small islets in Japan, where it hybridises with the Japanese macaque (M. fuscata) (6).

Formosan rock macaques are quadrupedal (Fleagle, 1988). They use cheek pouches to carry food in while foraging. The pelage is dark gray to brown in color. Tail length varies from 26 to 46 cm and body lengh ranges from 36 to 45 cm. They typically weigh 5 to 12 kg, though some adult males can be over 18 kg. The hairs are soft, a dark gray color in winter and an olive drab in summer; abdominal skin is slightly blue (Grzimek, 1988).

Range mass: 5 to 18 kg.

Range length: 36 to 45 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Formosan rock macaques inhabit primarily mixed coniferous-hardwood temperate forest, as well as bamboo and grassland at elevations between 100 and 3600 m . They are also found in coastal areas. (Grzimek, 1988)

Range elevation: 100 to 3600 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest

Primarily found in mixed coniferous-hardwood temperate forest, as well as bamboo and grassland, at elevations between 100 and 3,600 m above sea level (5).

Formosan rock macaques consume a wide variety of foods, including fruits, leaves, berries, seeds, insects, animal prey, buds, young shoots, and small vertebrates. These macaques reportedly raid crops (Rowe, 1996).

Animal Foods: insects

Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: omnivore

These animals may be important in local food webs, and in helping to disperse seeds.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

Humans are reported to hunt these animals for their meat. They may also fall victim to raptors. However, Clouded leopards are the primary predators of these animals

Known Predators:

• Clouded leopards
• Humans

VOCAL COMMUNICATION:

Formosan rock macaques emit 'scream calls' when approached by a non-group members. Group members answer this call with a sound that sounds like "kyaw-kyaw".

VISUAL COMMUNICATION:

A fear grimace is when the lips are retracted so that the teeth are shown and clenched (Estes, 1991). This display functions as an appeasement signal to reduce aggression in aggressive encounters (Estes, 1991).

Staring with an open mouth but with the teeth covered indicates aggression (Estes, 1991).

As in other macaques, it is likely that tactile communication (grooming, playing, fighting, mating) is also important. There may be some chemical communication in the form a pheromones.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Most species in the genus Macaca live to be about 30 years old in captivity. Lifespans in the wild are probably shorter. It is reasonable to assume that M. cyclopis is like other members of the genus in this respect.

Most macaques are polygynous. Given the sexual dimorphism in size seen in M. cyclopis, it is reasonable to assume that this species is, also.

Mating System: polygynous

Formosan rock macaques give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy. During estrus the perineum of the female swells at the base of the tail and along the thighs.

Gestation period is about 165 days. Young weigh an average of 400 g at birth. The mating season occurs from November through January, with births occuring from April through June. The mating season coincides with the peak of fruit availability. Females 5 to 9 years old usually give birth every other year, older females give birth every year (Rowe, 1996).

In most macaques, nursing lasts for about one year. Young are typically independent after about two years, although may retain life-long associations with their mother.

Breeding interval: Females 5 to 9 years old usually give birth every other year, older females give birth every year.

Breeding season: The mating season occurs from November through January.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Average gestation period: 165 days.

Average weaning age: 12 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Most parental care is provided by the mother. She grooms, nurses, protects her infant until it becomes independent. In most macaques, the period of nursing is about a year. Young are typically independent by two years of age. However, females may have relationships with their female kin for the remainder of their lives. Females remain in their natal group with the onset of maturity, but males disperse shortly before adolescence. There is a hierarchical dominance system among group members based upon the matriline.

Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; inherits maternal/paternal territory; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young

Situated in a subtropical zone, Taiwan possesses a warm and moist climate and a large variety of plants and wild life. Of the world's approximately 4,500 species of mammals, Taiwan has 61. In order to protect these precious natural resources in the face of growing economic development the Taiwanese government has in recent years actively promoted concepts of, and measures for, environmental conservation which have become widely accepted by the general public. Taiwan actively participates in important international treaties and organizations such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Macaca cyclopis once occured throughout Taiwan, but is now restricted to remote highlands by human encroachment. Macaques are killed for food, medicinal preparations, and taken as pets and for research purposes. The primary threat to their populations is habitat destruction.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Current Listing Status Summary

Status: Threatened
Date Listed: 10/19/1976
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10) 
Where Listed:


Population detail:

Population location: entire
Listing status: T

For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Macaca cyclopis , see its USFWS Species Profile

Classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List 2006 (1), and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Like so many primates, the Formosan rock macaque has drastically declined in numbers at the hands of their close relative, humans (8). Reports from 1989, when the Wildlife Conservation Law was enacted, state that the very survival of this species was in serious jeopardy, with at least 3,000 a year being killed for food, medicinal preparations, and taken as pets and for research (5) (8). Sadly, macaques' similarity to humans in physiology and disease susceptibility has made them a popular subject of biological, medicinal and psychological research (5). Additionally, this species was being exploited for trade of curiosities, such as ashtrays made from their skulls, sold in night markets (8). Human encroachment has also heavily impacted population numbers through habitat destruction, restricting the Formosan rock macaque primarily to remote inland highlands (5).

Conservation Actions

Throughout the 1990s, following the enactment of the Wildlife Conservation Act, the Formosan rock macaque was the focus of Taiwan's intensive and highly successful conservation efforts, which have significantly increased population numbers. However, the larger, rebounded population of these macaques has created some new problems in their relationship with humans. For example, farmers have begun to complain that the species is a serious crop pest and have tried strategies from dogs to firecrackers to traps to try to deal with the thieves. In addition, in areas where tourists regularly feed the macaques, people have been attacked by monkeys demanding food, and some macaques have become over-dependent on human feeding. Thus, although the growing numbers of Formosan rock macaques is a great conservation success story, the equally growing tension between humans and monkeys highlights the need for conservation management to consider the wider ecological picture, if they are to create a balanced, harmonious and sustainable relationship between these two primate species (8).

Parasites that infect M. cyclopis may be transmitted to humans, this is particularly a problem in recent years as tourism increases in the regions they inhabit and contact with humans becomes more frequent. They also are known to raid crops.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest

Macaques are popular zoo animals because of their active lifestyle and adaptability. They are also useful in biological, medicinal, and psychological research because of their similarity to humans in physiology and disease susceptibility. These animals may also be hunted for food.

Positive Impacts: food ; research and education