Overview
Distribution
Range Description
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Geographic Range
Stump-tailed macaques are native to southeast Asia. Their distribution includes China, India, Burma, West Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, eastern Bangladesh, and the Malay Peninsula. There is an introduced population in Tanaxpillo, Veracruz, Mexico, an island not inhabited by humans, where they live in conditions similar to their natural habitat in Asia.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced ); palearctic (Native )
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India (Assam) to southern China
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Stump-tailed macaques, also known as bear macaques, have shaggy, dark brown hair covering them. They have hairless faces with red skin which darkens with sun exposure. Infants are born with white hair that darkens as they age. As they age, adult males and females show balding on the tops of their heads, much like human males, receding from the forehead towards the back of the skull. As in all other cercopithecines, they have cheek pouches that they use to store food when foraging. They are terrestrial quadrupedal movers.
Stump-tailed macaques have hairless tails that are shorter than other g.Macaca species. Tail length ranges from 3.2 to 69 mm. This species is sexually dimorphic in many aspects of their physiology. Males are larger, ranging from 9.9 to 10.2 kg and 517 to 650 mm in height whereas females are 7.5 to 9.1 kg and 485 to 585 mm in height. Males also have much larger canines, which they use for asserting dominance within their group. Like all cercopithecids, they have a dental formula of: 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3.
Range mass: 7.5 to 10.2 kg.
Range length: 485 to 650 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
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Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
Systems
- Terrestrial
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Habitat
Stump-tailed macaques are found in subtropical evergreen forests below 1500 m and tropical evergreen rainforests between 1800 and 2500 m. They live in wet environments and are not found in dry forests.
Range elevation: 2500 (high) m.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Stump-tailed macaques have cheek pouches that, when filled, can hold a volume equal to that of their stomach. They forage starting in the morning through midday. They are omnivorous, but they eat mostly fruit. They also eat seeds, flowers, roots, leaves, and animals such as frogs, freshwater crabs, birds, and bird eggs. They have also been known to raid corn crops and cultivated fruits.
Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; eggs; insects; terrestrial worms; aquatic crustaceans
Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers
Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food
Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore ); omnivore
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Associations
Ecosystem Roles
Stump-tailed macaques contribution to native ecosystems as seed dispersers.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
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Predation
Potential predators are large raptors, common leopards, dogs, and clouded leopards. To deter predators, they shake branches, bare their canines, assume aggressive postures, and alpha males will "roar".
Known Predators:
- clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa)
- large raptors (Accipitridae)
- feral dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
- leopards (Panthera pardus)
- Chetry, D., R. Medhi, P. Bhattacharjee. 2003. Anti-predator behavior of stumptail macaques in Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India.. Asian Primates, 8/4: 20-22.
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Life History and Behavior
Behavior
Communication and Perception
They communicate mostly visually and vocally. Common forms of visual communication are "teeth chattering", presenting one's rump to another individual, "lip smacking" and "barred teeth". When in heat, the females have swellings on their behind. This is a form of sexual communication, that they are receptive to mating.
Vocal communication often consists of "coo" which is used to stay in contact with other group members or when approaching another individual. They also use grunts when approaching another after fighting or if they are interested sexually. As mentioned before alpha males will "roar" to fend off predators.
When infants are distressed they will let out a shrill "whistle".
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic
Other Communication Modes: pheromones
Perception Channels: visual
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Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
They can live up to 30 years in captivity. However, they tend to have shorter lifespans in the wild.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 30 years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
Stump-tailed macaques are promiscuous in their mating behavior. Dominance plays a big role in who gets to mate. High ranking males monopolize females in the group. However, lower ranking males have other strategies of obtaining mating opportunities. They hang back and mate with females when the dominant male is not watching. Often referred to as the "sneaker" male strategy.
Both males and females initiate mating, though males tend to be more active when it comes to sexual behavior. Females make eye contact and present their perineal region (rump). Males approach females and sit next to them. Males chatter their teeth and grimace. When copulation is occurring, other group members often harass the pair.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
In their native habitat, stump-tail macaques breed during the months of October and November. In captivity they don't reproduce on any seasonal schedule. Females have an offspring about every 2 years. The gestation period is 177 days. After birth, infants are nursed for 9 months. After weaning they are still dependent on their mother and other adults in the group and don't reach independence until about 1.5 years old.
Young inherit rank maternally as females are philopatric. Male young disperse sometime after independence.
Breeding interval: Stump-tailed macaques can reproduce about every 2 years.
Breeding season: Breeding occurs in October and November in wild, Feburary and March in the introduced Mexican population.
Average number of offspring: 1.
Average gestation period: 177 days.
Average birth mass: 450 g.
Average weaning age: 9 months.
Average time to independence: 18 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4 years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 4.5 to 5 years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous
The primary caregiver for young is the mother. She nurses, carries, and protects them. Additionally, all the females in the group care for the young of other females, especially if the mother is high ranking. Females carry, play with, protect, and groom the young. Alpha males will also help protect young and infants since there is a good chance they are their offspring.
Stump-tailed macaques are more gentle with their young than other macaque species. Their is no threat of kidnapping from other group members, so mothers tend to be lenient with their young and give them independence in exploring the environment around them.
Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young
- Estrada, A., R. Estrada. 1984. Female-infant interactions among free-ranging stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides).. Primates, 25(1): 48-61.
- Brereton, A. 1994. Copulatory behavior in a free-ranging population of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides) in Mexico.. Primates, 35(2): 113-122.
- Bauers, K., J. Hearn. 1994. Patterns of paternity in relation to male social rank in the stumptailed macaque, Macaca arctoides. Behaviour, 129(3-4): 149-176.
- Cerda-Molina, A., L. Hernández-López, S. Rojas-Maya, C. Murcia-Mejía, R. Mondragón-Ceballos. 2006. Male-Induced Sociosexual Behavior by Vaginal Secretions in Macaca arctoides.. International Journal of Primatology, 27/3: 791-807.
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Justification
History
- 2000Vulnerable
- 1996Vulnerable(Baillie and Groombridge 1996)
- 1994Insufficiently Known(Groombridge 1994)
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Conservation Status
On the IUCN list stum-tailed macaques are considered vulnerable. They are at risk for extinction in the near future. Their populations have decreased 20% in the last 10 years. There have already been instances of certain populations disappearing. Indian and Bangladesh populations haven't been seen since 1990. Habitat and hunting are the main causes and concerns for their conservation. They are also becoming more uncommon in Thailand and Malaysia. Human induced habitat change is the primary cause of population decline. Urban and agricultural expansion threatens native habitats. In India, where these macaques are legally protected, they have set aside areas of land for stump-tailed macaque conservation and are enforcing protection.
US Federal List: threatened
CITES: appendix ii
State of Michigan List: no special status
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable
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Status: Threatened
Date Listed: 10/19/1976
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10)
Where Listed:
Population detail:
Population location: entire
Listing status: T
For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Macaca arctoides , see its USFWS Species Profile
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Trends
Population
Populations of this species are critically threatened in India, declining in Myanmar, stable in Thailand, and declining rapidly in China and Viet Nam. There are some declines in Lao PDR and Cambodia. Future declines are predicted to be faster in Lao PDR, Viet Nam, India, Myanmar and China due to habitat loss and/or hunting.
Population Trend
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Threats
Threats
In India much of its habitat is affected by Jhum cultivation (shifting or slash-and-burn) (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001). It has also been indiscriminately hunted to the brink of extinction over almost its entire distribution in this country (Srivastava and Mohnot 2001).
In Viet Nam, this species is heavily targeted for use in traditional “medicine,” both in country and for trade with China. Within Lao PDR, Viet Nam and Cambodia, hunting levels for food is also very high. Habitat loss is a relatively lower threat compared to hunting (R. Timmins pers. comm.).
In Myanmar, logging and timber extraction are major threats. Commercial rubber plantations, hunting, and trade of animals parts with China are all major threats to this species.
In China, hunting and habitat loss have reduced in population of this species, and it is locally extinct in some places.
In Thailand, habitat loss is a major threat, while hunting is prevalent, but not a significant threat to the species (R. Boonratana pers. comm.).
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Management
Conservation Actions
Stump-tailed macaques are found in a number of protected areas throughout their range, including: Balpakram National Park, Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary, Murlen National Park (India); Huay Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary (Thailand). They may possibly occur in Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary and Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary (India), and in Nam Ha National Biodiversity Conservation Area (Lao PDR).
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Stump-tailed macaques can be a nuisance for farmers by crop raiding.
Negative Impacts: crop pest
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Humans have used stump-tailed macaques for testing the anti-hairloss drug minoxidil also known as Rogaine. By testing on the macaques, researchers were able to produce a safe product for human use.
Positive Impacts: research and education
- Uno, H. 1986. The stumptailed macaque as a model for baldness: effects of minoxidil.. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 8/2: 288-296.
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Wikipedia
Stump-tailed macaque
The stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides), also called the bear macaque, is a species of macaque found in Southern Asia. In India, it is found in south of the Brahmaputra river, in northeastern part of the country.[3]Its range in India extends from Assam and Meghalaya to eastern Aruanchal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura. [4]
It is primarily frugivorous, with its diet mostly consisting of fruits. It eats many types of vegetation such as seeds, leaves and roots, but also hunts freshwater crabs, frogs, bird eggs and insects.[5]
Contents |
Physical characteristics
The stump-tailed macaque has long, thick, dark brown fur covering its body, but its face and its short tail, which measures between 32 and 69mm, are hairless.[5] Infants are born white and darken as they mature.[5] As they age, their bright pink or red faces darken to brown or nearly black and lose a lot of their hair.[5] Males are much larger than females, measuring between 51.7-65cm long and weighing between 9.7-10.2kg, while females measure between 48.5-58.5cm and weigh between 7.5-9.1kg.[5] Male stump-tailed macaques' canine teeth, which are important for establishing dominance within social groups, are more elongated than those of the females.[5] Like all macaques, this species has cheek pouches to store food for short periods of time.[5]
Habitat
This Old World monkey travels quadrupedally and usually on the ground for it is not very agile in trees.[5] It is generally found in subtropical and tropical broad leaf evergreen forests, in different elevations depending on the amount of rainfall in the area.[5] It depends on rainforests for food and shelter and is not found in dry forests except where it ranges in the Himalayan region of India, only spending time in secondary forests if it is bordering primary tropical forests.[5] It is distributed from North-Eastern India and Southern China into the North-West tip of West Malaysia on the Malay Peninsula.[1][5] It is also found in Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, and far Eastern Bangladesh.[2][5] A study population was introduced to Tanaxpillo, an uninhabited island in Lake Catemaco, Veracruz, Mexico in 1974, where it ranges in semi-natural conditions.[5] Most information on the species comes from the introduced population on Tanaxpillo and other captive settings as there have been very few long-term studies of the Stump-tailed Macaque in the wild.[5]
See also
- Britches (monkey) - an infant stump-tailed macaque used in sight-deprivation experiments who was removed from the laboratory by the Animal Liberation Front.
References
- ^ a b Groves, C. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. eds. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 161. OCLC 62265494. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=12100529.
- ^ a b Htun, S., Timmins, R. J., Boonratana, R. & Das, J. (2008). Macaca arctoides. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 4 January 2009.
- ^ Choudhury, A.U. (1988) Priority ratings for conservation of Indian primates. Oryx 22: 89-94.
- ^ Choudhury, A.U. (2002) Status and conservation of the stump-tailed macaque Macaca arctoides in India. Primate Report 63: 63-72.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Cawthon Lang KA (2005-10-04). "Primate Factsheets: Stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology". http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/stump-tailed_macaque. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
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