Cebus apella apella
This is a wide ranging subspecies in the lower Amazon. The definition of Cebus apella apella of course determines the geographic range. As this is still controversial, the geographic range is correspondingly uncertain. Here we follow the taxonomy and proposed distributions of Silva Jr (2001). The taxonomic arrangement proposed by Groves (2001) was discussed by Rylands et al. (2005), especially in relation to the work of Torres de Assumpção (1983). It was not possible to delimit the ranges of the subspecies he recognized, but those of the species were mapped in Fragaszy et al. (2004). The one exception is in the lack of precision in the ranges of C. libidinosus and C. apella. Groves (2001) recognized C. libidinosus juruanus as the form occurring from the upper Juruá (type locality: Brazil: Frente a João Pessôa, Rio Juruá) extending east in a swathe through northern Mato Grosso. In the map provided in Fragaszy et al. (2004), C. libidinosus juruanus is restricted to the upper Juruá (a range proposed by Hill [1960]), and entirely surrounded by C. apella, which of course is unreasonable: it should have a range which is contiguous with other C. libidinosus subspecies. If a valid taxon, the range of C. l. juruanus should extend through northern Mato Grosso to meet the range C. l. libidinosus, but its limits are unclear. The requirements for any conservation assessment and subsequent conservation action are that the taxon is defined and its geographic distribution delineated. Silva Jr. (2001) provided a taxonomy and distribution maps. This in no way discards the taxonomy proposed by Groves (2001). Further research is needed.

The range of Cebus apella apella described here includes that of C. apella tocantinus Lönnberg, 1939, from the south of the lower to middle Amazon, Cebus libidinosus pallidus Gray, 1866 from the central and northern Bolivia (as indicated by Groves 2001), part of the range of C. macrocephalus Spix, 1823 (lower to middle Amazon north of the Rio Amazonas), and the part of that of C. libidinosus juruanus that Groves (2001) proposed extended through Rondônia to northern Mato Grosso.

The stronghold of the type species is the Guianas, and Brazil, at least east of the Rio Negro. Boher-Bentti and Cordero-Rodríguez (2000) extended it to the southern extreme of the Orinoco Delta, although it is otherwise not recognized as occurring in eastern Venezuela (Bodini and Pérez-Hernández 1987; Linares 1998). In Venezuela, it occurs in the Federal Territory of Amazonas, along both sides of the upper Rio Orinoco, its precise range being limited by savannas. The range to the west is constrained by C. macrocephalus and to the south by C. libidinosus. In the east to the interfluvium of the rios Itapecuru and Parnaiba in the state of Maranhão. In Bolivia, Cebus apella occurs south of the Madre de Dios, south to the headwaters of the ríos Mamoré and Beni, where it meets the range of C. cay occurring in southern Bolivia, the Brazilian Mato Grosso, Paraguay and Argentina. It extends into south-east Peru along the south of the Río Madre de Dios, west as far the Rio Inambari (recognized as C. a. pallidus by Aquino and Encarnación [1994]). In the southern Amazon, C. apella would be restricted by the transition to Cerrado, the bush savanna of central Brazil where C. libidinosus occurs.

Cebus apella margaritae
Cebus apella margaritae lives in four forest fragments on the east side of Margarita Island in Venezuela: El Copey Nacional Park (7,130 ha) rising to 930 m above sea level; the Serranía of Cerro Tragaplata (~4,400 ha) an unprotected area rising to 680 m above seas level; Cerro Matasiete Natural Monument (1,145 ha) rising to 660 m asl; and Cerro Taguantar (~1,000 ha) an unprotected area rising to 520 m above sea level. Monkeys were reported in Cerro Taguantar in 2007 (Ceballos-Mago, direct observation).

Cebus apella is found east of the Andes from Colombia and Venezuela to Paraguay and northern Argentina.

Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )

Brown capuchin monkeys vary in color from light brown to mustard yellow to black. The shoulders and underbelly are lighter than the rest of the body. There is a patch of coarse black fur on the crown of the head, sometimes referred to as a cap. Above the ears the black hairs form tufts of fur giving the species one of its common names, tufted capuchin monkey. Facial patterns are variable among individuals, but black sideburns extending from the cap are characteristic of Cebus apella. The hands, feet, and tail are either black or dark brown.

The tail is long and prehensile. Cebus apella is the only species of capuchin monkey known to carry its tail in a tight coil.

This species is robust and stocky. Brown capuchin monkeys have a deep lower jaw and large jaw muscles to accomodate a diet of large fruits and rough vegetation. Males are 34% larger in body size and have canines 22% larger than those of females.

Range mass: 1300 to 4800 g.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Cebus apella inhabits moist subtropical or tropical forests, but has also been seen in dry forest, gallery forest, disturbed and secondary forest. In northwest Argentina these monkeys live in montane forest at an elevation of 200 to 1100m. This species prefers the understory and midcanopy of the forest, but often descends from the trees to forage and play. Cebus apella has the widest range and broadest habitat tolerances of any other Cebus species.

Range elevation: 1100 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest ; mountains

Fruits are a large part of brown capuchin monkey's diet. This species can eat larger fruits than other species of capuchin monkey because of their robust jaws. Vegetation, seeds, pith, eggs, insects, reptiles, birds, and small mammals (such as mouse opossums) are also included in their diet. During the dry season, when food is scarce, Scheelea palm frond pith is critical to this animal's survival.

Foraging is a noisy and destructive activity. Brown capuchin monkeys move from tree to tree, ripping apart vegetation and cracking open nuts against branches. They look for vertebrate and invertebrate prey by destroying dead vegetation and capturing anything inside. Individuals who catch prey do not usually share with other group members.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; amphibians; reptiles; eggs; carrion ; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers

Primary Diet: omnivore

Brown capuchin monkeys are important predators on small animals and may disperse the seeds of some forest plants when they eat the fruit.

Cebus apella can be found in mixed species groups. They are most often found in association with squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sp.). Usually the squirrel monkeys initiate the mixed group interaction, probably in order to find food more efficiently. Squirrel monkeys follow brown capuchin monkeys to new food sources, which saves them foraging time. The association does not seem to benefit capuchin monkeys.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

The dominant male protects his troop from predators by sounding alarm calls. This draws attention to himself so that his troop can escape. Capuchin monkeys are very wary of predators.

Members of a troop give sharp whistling calls at the sight of hawks and eagles, two of the most significant predators of this species. The troop is so wary of hawks and eagles that it sounds alarm whistles even if the bird flying overhead is harmless.

Known Predators:

• hawks and eagles (Accipitridae)

These monkeys scent mark themselves by washing their hands in their own urine and rubbing their hands on their fur. This may be a way for males to advertise their sexual maturity.

Female brown capuchin monkeys in estrus try to attract the attention of the dominant male by following him and making loud calls. A wide variety of vocalizations is known from Cebus species. These were divided into 4 categories in C. olivaceus: contacting the group, contacting individuals, ending aggressive encounters, alerting the group to the presence of danger.

Gestures and facial expressions are also widely used in communication and social grooming is an important form of contact.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Typical longevity in the wild is unknown, but captive C. apella may live to 45 years old.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 45 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 44.6 years.

Average lifespan

Sex: male

Status: captivity: 41.0 years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 40.0 years.

Average lifespan

Sex: male

Status: captivity: 45.1 years.

Maximum longevity: 46 years (captivity) Observations: One specimen was about 46 years old when it died in captivity (Richard Weigl 2005).

Cebus apella has a polygamous mating system. Females mate preferentially with the dominant male. Other males have mating opportunities when the dominant male is not present. During the last two days of a female's estrus cycle, the dominant male is very protective and keeps the female from mating with subordinate males.

Mating System: polygynous

Cebus apella does not appear to have a breeding season, though most births may occur during the dry season or early rainy season. The ovarian cycle lasts for approximately 21 days and female's show no external genital swellings during estrus. The gestation period is 150-160 days and one infant is born, twins are very rare.

Young males leave their natal group once they reach sexual maturity. Male brown capuchin monkeys are considered sexually mature at 7 years of age. Females mature earlier and may give birth to their first offspring as early as 4 years old.

Breeding interval: Capuchins give birth once yearly.

Breeding season: Births and breeding may occur in any season, but may be more frequent during dry or early rainy seasons.

Range number of offspring: 2 (high) .

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 150 to 160 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 7 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Average birth mass: 239.7 g.

Average number of offspring: 1.5.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 1703 days.

Parenting is left to the females, although males are tolerant of juveniles. Allomothering is a common practice. Infant capuchin monkeys cling to their mothers fur during their first few months of life. Mothers travel with their infants and nurse them during that time. If a young capuchin monkey is separated from its mother, other members of the troop will respond to the infant's distress calls. Female capuchins remain in their natal group at adulthood while males disperse.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There are 3 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 3
Species: 4
Species With Barcodes: 1

Because of its high reproductive potential and its habitat flexibility, hunting and habitat destruction have not devastated populations as severely as they have other species of primates. However, certain subspecies may be threatened, including C. a. xanthosternos and C. a. robustus from the Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil.

Cebus apella is the most commonly seen monkey in Amazonia.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Conservation Actions

There are no known negative affects of C. apella on humans.

Cebus apella has been extensively hunted for meat. These animals are also popular pets in many parts of the world. They have been trained to perform household tasks for people with disabilities and are most commonly known as the monkeys used by itinerant "organ grinders".

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; body parts are source of valuable material; research and education