Overview
Distribution
Range Description
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Geographic Range
Native to the Brazilian rainforest, Saguinus bicolor is found in a small region north of the Amazon River.
Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )
- Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, Sixth Edition. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
Brazilian bare-faced tamarins are named for their black, hairless face and ears contrasted with variable fur colors such as brown, black, or silver, depending on the subspecies. Body length ranges from 208 to 283 mm and tail length is 335 to 420 mm. Weight in both males and females averages 430 g. These primates have non-opposable thumbs with claw-like digits, except for the first digit on each toe. The dental formula is 2/2-1/1-3/3-2/2=32 teeth. Canines are larger than incisors.
Average mass: 430 g.
Range length: 208 to 283 mm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Average mass: 495.8 g.
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Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
Marmosets and tamarins are distinguished from the other monkeys of the New World by their small size, modified claws rather than nails on all digits except the big toe, the presence of two as opposed to three molar teeth in either side of each jaw, and by the occurrence of twin births. They eat fruits, flowers, nectar, plant exudates and animal prey (including frogs, snails, lizards, spiders and insects). They live in extended family groups of between four and 15 individuals. Subirá (1998b) recorded group sizes of 3 to 15 individuals (mean 6.19 ±2.62, n=46). Vidal and Cintra (2006) recorded group sizes that ranged from 2 to 11 and averaged 4.8 individuals (n = 41). Generally, only one female per group breeds during a particular breeding season. Tamarin groups defend home ranges of 10-100 ha, the size depending on availability and distribution of foods and second-growth patches. A Saguinus bicolor group studied in the extensive forest of the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve was found to use a home range of about 100 ha (M. Gordo pers. comm. in Vidal and Cintra 2006).
Aspects of the behaviour and ecology of Saguinus bicolor were studied by Egler (1986, 1992, 1993) at Tarumã-Açú, near Manaus. She studied a group of 6-10 individuals for 11 months in 1983-1984. Twins were born to a single breeding female in May and November 1983. The group used 12 ha of forest, which included mature old growth, old and young secondary forest and white sand forest (campinarana).
Size:
H&B 20.8-28.3 cm, TL 33.5-42.0 cm (Gregorin and Tahara 2008)
Males 428 g (n=4) (Smith and Jungers 1997).
Systems
- Terrestrial
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Habitat
Brazilian bare-faced tamarins are an arboreal species that prefers secondary forests, swamps, edge and white sand forests. They are usually found from 10 to 12 meters up in the canopy.
Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest
Wetlands: swamp
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
The fruits or flowers of 21 plants compose 96.1% of the plant component of the diet, along with tree exudates. Small animal prey, including insects, and seedpod gums are consumed during the dry season. A stealthy approach is used to hunt and capture large insects on leaves and branches. While they feed at all canopy heights, from the ground to over 20 meters, they prefer heights of 10 to 12 meters.
Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods
Plant Foods: leaves; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers; sap or other plant fluids
Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )
- Kinzey, W. G. 1997. New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior. New York: Warren G. Kinzey, Aldine de Gruyter.
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Associations
Ecosystem Roles
Little is known about the ecosystem roles of the bicolored tamarins. They may help to pollinate and disperse seeds by eating fruits, nectars, and seedpod gums from various plants and trees.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; pollinates
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Predation
Predators of Brazilian bare-faced tamarins are predominately humans, through the expanding city of Manaus.
Known Predators:
- humans (Homo sapiens)
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Known predators
Homo sapiens
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
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Known prey organisms
Arthropoda
Insecta
This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.
- Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2006. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed February 16, 2011 at http://animaldiversity.org. http://www.animaldiversity.org
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Life History and Behavior
Behavior
Communication and Perception
Like other primates, communication in this species involves many different channels. Vocal communication consists of whistles and chirps.
Chemical communication in tamarins is more complex. Supapubic/sternal marking is used by rubbing the sternal gland in the anogenital region against branches. Two forms of sternal marking are used, depending on how excited and individual is.
In addition to vocal and chemical communication, primates have complex tactile communication. Grooming is an important part of their behavior. In addition, tactile communication between mates, parents and offspring, and rivals probably occur in other contexts.
Because these animals are diurnal and social, it is likely that they also use some visual signals in their communication. Body postures and movements probably signify intentions and desires to other tamarins.
Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks
Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic
- Rowell, T. 1972. The Social Behavior of Monkeys. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd.
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Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
Although the longevity of S. bicolor has not been reported, members of this genus may live as long as 25 years in captivity. It is likely that S. bicolor is similar. Lifespan in the wild is probably significantly shorter.
Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 19 years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
Usually only the dominant female in a social group will mate. Other females are unable to ovulate as long as the dominant female's pheromones are present. Although usually only the dominant female in a social group breeds, it is not known which males participate in breeding, and whether the species is polyandrous. It should be noted, however, that in other species of this genus, the dominant female has been observed copulating with more than one adult male, and given other similarities between all tamarins, it is likely that S. bicolor shows some degree of polyandry.
Mating System: monogamous ; polyandrous
Eighty percent of births are twins, with litter weights ranging from 14.1 to 23.5% of the maternal weight. Within the genus Saguinus, it is common for the father as well as other members of the group to assist in the care, grooming, carrying, and feeding of young.
Generally, within the genus Saguinus, the young are born fully furred, but helpless. However, they are able to cling to their parents. The young are able to explore their environment on their own by about 21 days of age, but they continue to ride on their parents until they are 6 or 7 weeks old. Solid foods may be ingested by the young as early as 4 weeks of age, although nursing can continue much longer.
Females have an estrous cycle of approximately 15 days in this genus. Gestation lengths for these tamarins have been reported as around 140-150 days. Females reach reproductive maturity around 18 months of age, and males reach reproductive maturity around 2 years of age. It is reasonable to suspect that S. bicolor is similar to its congeners in these respects.
Breeding interval: These animals probably breed annually.
Breeding season: Repoduction in the genus Saguinus is reported to be aseasonal, although peaks of births may occur in March through May.
Range number of offspring: 1 to 2.
Range gestation period: 140 to 150 days.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 18 months.
Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 24 months.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous
Average number of offspring: 1.63.
Parental care in tamarins is somewhat unique among primates, in that males provide a great deal of it. Both parents provide general care for their young, but the males usually carry them. Males transfer the young back to the mother every couple of hours to nurse. It is thought that the energetic demands of lactation and carrying such relatively heavy twin offspring are just too much for a single mother to manage.
From birth until 20 weeks of age, juveniles are given solid food by both parents, although fathers take the lead in providing such food for the young. Self-feeding is dominant after this period.
It is interesting to examine the communal care of offspring in tamarin species with regard to the polyandrous mating system noted in some species. It may be that this system has evolved because the energetic burden of reproduction in these small animals, which subsist mainly on high quality fruit and insect foods, is so very great. Because the young weigh so much, grow rapidly, and need a lot of milk, a mother is not able to carry the twins, and simultaneously obtain enough food to maintain both herself and her milk supply. In order to ensure that the offspring have a good chance of survival, a male may benefit by allowing another male to mate with a female (thereby reducing certainty of paternity) but providing an additional "father" to share the responsibilities of rearing the young. This may increase survivorship of the young tamarins.
Nonreproductive individuals in tamarin social groups have also been seen to care for young, although at a lower frequency than parents. This sort of alloparental behavior may benefit the helpers by giving them valuable experience in the care of the young, and also in ensuring the survival of siblings or other close relatives. Although not specifically reported for S. bicolor, it is likely that some of this helping behavior occurs.
Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning
- Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World, Sixth Edition. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Goldizen, A. 1987. Tamarins and marmosets: Communal care of offspring. Pp. 34-43 in B Smuts, D Cheyney, R Seyfarth, R Wrangham, T Struhsaker, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago an London: The University of Chicago Press.
- Price, E., C. Feistner, T. Anna. 2001. Food-sharing in pied bare-faced tamarins (Saguinus bicolor bicolor): development and individual differences. International Journal of Primatology, 22(2): 231-241.
- Snowdon, C., Soini. 1988. The tamarins, genus Saguinus . Ecology and Behavior of Neotropical Primates, 2: 223-298.
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
Assessor/s
Reviewer/s
Contributor/s
Justification
History
- 2003Critically Endangered(IUCN 2003)
- 2000Endangered
- 1996Endangered
- 1996Endangered
- 1994Endangered(Groombridge 1994)
- 1990Endangered(IUCN 1990)
- 1988Indeterminate(IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1988)
- 1986Indeterminate(IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1986)
- 1982Indeterminate(Thornback and Jenkins 1982)
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Conservation Status
Brazilian bare-faced tamarins are listed as threatened species under the US Endangered Species Act, and are on CITES Appendix II.
US Federal List: threatened
CITES: appendix ii
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered
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Status: Endangered
Date Listed: 10/19/1976
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10)
Where Listed:
Population detail:
Population location: entire
Listing status: E
For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Saguinus bicolor , see its USFWS Species Profile
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Trends
Population
Vidal and Cintra (2006) recorded 41 groups of Saguinus bicolor in the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (10,000 ha). They indicated that it was probable that this gives a rough estimate of the entire population in the reserve.
Subirá (1998b) carried out population surveys for Saguinus bicolor at a number of sites and recorded several Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (115,000 ha) - 1.85 individuals/km² or 0.37 groups/km² (indicating around 426 groups or about 2,100 individuals)
Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve (10,000 ha) - 2.35 individuals/km² or 0.4 groups/km² (indicating about 43 groups or 235 individiuals)
Forest fragment Souza Arnold (10.5 ha) - 57.14 individuals/km² or 9.52 groups/km²
Forest fragment João Bosco (12.8 ha) - 62.5 individuals/km² or 7.81 groups/km².
Population Trend
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Threats
Threats
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Management
Conservation Actions
The conservation and management of this species (in situ and ex situ) is overseen by the Committee for the Conservation and Management of Amazonian Primates, coordinated by the Center for the Protection of Brazilian Primates (Centro de Protecao de Primatas Brasileiros – CPB) of the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade - ICMBIO of the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment (Baker and Bampi 1999; Oliveira et al. 2005).
This species is recorded from a number of protected areas, including:
Sumauma State Park
Rio Negro State Park
Sauim-castanheiras Wildlife Refuce (97 ha)
Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (Inpa) (10,000 ha)
Walter Egler Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (Inpa) (630 ha).
Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve
Margem Esquerda do Rio Negro Environmemtal Protection Area - Tarumã-Açú/Tarumã-mirim Sector
A very important reserved area, the largest for the species, is a 115,000-ha forest just east of Manaus that is owned by the military - the Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (CIGS). There is just a small corridor of forest remaining that connects the east side of the Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve with the area of CIGS. The Adolfo Ducke Reserve is otherwise now completely isolated.
The main areas of the urban district of Manaus where Saguinus bicolor still survives are the Mindu Municipal Park (26.5 ha), the campus of the Fundação Universidade do Amazonas (670 ha), around the two airports of Manaus, Eduardo Gomes (800 ha) and Ponte Pelada (57.6 ha), in the worker's country clubs of SESCI (49.5 ha) and SESI (100 ha), on the campus of the Instituto Nacuonal de Pesquisas da Amazonia (Inpa) (14 ha), and around the Manaus military zoo (1ºBIS/CIGS).
There is a captive breedng programme (Baker et al. 2005), derived laergely from pied tamarins from the Rio de Janeior Primnate Centre (CPRJ) and the Universität Bielefeld, Germany. All of the pied tamarins are registered as the property of the Brazilian government. The studbook of 2004 (31 December 2004), recorded 117 pied tamarins in captivity in 19 institutions (Baker et al. 2005).
Since the early 1980s, there have been a number of environmental education campaigns in Manaus on behalf of the pied tamarin. An example of one of the most recent is "Sauim-de-Coleira, Ele Tem o Direito de Viver", by the Fundação Vitória Amazônica (FVA) and the Centro de Ciência do Ambiente of the Universidade do Amazonas, Manaus (Subirá et al., undated)
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse affects of S. bicolor on humans.
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Brazilian bare-faced tamarins are utilized for food in the region of Manaus.
Positive Impacts: food
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Wikipedia
Pied tamarin
The pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor) is an endangered primate species found in a restricted area in the Brazilian Amazon Rainforest.
Contents |
Range
This New World monkey is found within and just north of the city limits of Manaus, the capital of the Amazonas state of Brazil. The main distribution is in the rio Cuieiras and rio Preto da Eva interfluvium. Pied tamarins are also found in the adjacent rio Preto da Eva and rio Urubu interfluvium, but are comparatively rare.[4] There appears to be interspecific competition between the pied tamarin and the red-handed tamarin[4] with the red-handed tamarin gradually displacing the pied tamarin from areas of its historical distribution.[5] There are therefore multiple threats to the long term survival of the pied tamarin that stem from habitat destruction and from interspecific competition.
Description
The pied tamarin's body measures 20.8–28.3 cm.; including the tail it measures 33.5–42.0 cm. Males weigh 428 grams (n = 4).[6] Its life expectancy is approximately 10 years in the wild.
Behavior and reproduction
Individuals live in groups of 2 to 15 members with little intra-group competition. Average group size in the Reserva Florestal Adolpho Ducke is 4.8 individuals per group (n = 41),[7] and other areas around Manaus reported mean group sizes of 6.19 ± 2.62 (n = 46).[8]
Only the alpha female of the group will breed. Reproduction in other females of the group is behaviorally suppressed. The gestation lasts 140–170 days and mothers typically give birth to twins. Young tamarins are cared for primarily by the father and turned over to the mother only to nurse; however, the entire group helps with the care of the young.
Tamarins are omnivorous, their diet consisting of fruit, flowers, nectar, insects, spiders, small vertebrates and bird eggs.[4] Its natural predators are small cats, birds of prey, and snakes. In urban setting main predators are domestic and feral cats and dogs. Because of the destruction of its natural habitat, the species is at risk. However, the species also occurs in several protected areas.[citation needed]
Conservation
Major protected areas outside Manaus include:[citation needed]
- The Rio Negro State Park
- The Sauim-castanheiras Wildlife Refuge (97 ha)
- The Adolfo Ducke Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (Inpa) (10,000 ha)
- The Walter Egler Forest Reserve of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (Inpa) (630 ha)
- The Military training area of the Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (CIGS) (115,000 ha)
- The Tupé Sustainable Development Reserve
- The left margin of Rio Negro Environmental Protection Area – Tarumã-Açú/Tarumã-mirim Sector
Major protected areas within Manaus include:[citation needed]
- The campus of Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM) (670 ha)
- The buffer zone around the Eduardo Gomes international airport (800 ha)
- The buffer zone around the Ponte Pelada regional airport (57.6 ha)
- The Sumauma State Park (51 ha)
- The Mindu Municipal Park (26.5 ha)
- The worker's country club SESCI (49.5 ha)
- The worker's country club SESI (100 ha)
- The 1ºBIS/CIGS military zoo and surrounding areas
References
 | Wikispecies has information related to: Pied Tamarin |
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Saguinus bicolor |
- ^ Groves, C. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. eds. Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 133–134. OCLC 62265494. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=12100216.
- ^ Rylands AB and Mittermeier RA (2009). "The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini)". In Garber PA, Estrada A, Bicca-Marques JC, Heymann EW, Strier KB. South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Springer. pp. 23–54. ISBN 978-0-387-78704-6.
- ^ Mittermeier, A. B., Boubli, J.-P., Subirá, R. & Rylands, A. B. (2008). Saguinus bicolor. In: IUCN 2008. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Downloaded on 2 November 2008. Database entry includes justification for why this species is endangered
- ^ a b c Röhe, F. (2006). Área de contato entre as distribuições geográficas de Saguinus midas e Saguinus bicolor (Callitrichidae-Primates): a importância de interações e fatores ecológicos. Dissertação de Mestrado — INPA/UFAM. pp. 71.
- ^ Ayres, J. M., R. A. Mittermeier, and I. D. Constable (1982). "Brazilian Tamarins on the way to extinction?". Orix 16 (04): 329–333. doi:10.1017/S0030605300017786.
- ^ Smith, R. J., and W. L. Jungers (1997). "Body mass in comparative primatology". Journal of Human Evolution 32 (6): 523–559. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0122. PMID 9210017.
- ^ Vidal, M. D., and R. Cintra (2006). "Effects of forest structure components on the occurrence, group size and density of groups of bare-face tamarin (Saguinus bicolor – Primates: Callitrichinae) in Central Amazonia". Acta Amazonica 36: 237–248.
- ^ Subirá, R. J. (1998). Avaliação da situação atual das populações selvagens do Sauim-de-coleira Saguinus b. bicolor (Spix, 1823). Dissertação de Mestrado — UNB. pp. 98.
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