Ocelots are most populous in Central America but can be found in all countries between southeastern United States (Texas, Arizona) and northern Argentina. They are found in higher density clusters in northern Central America, northwestern South America, northeastern South America, and central southern South America.

Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (20,000-2,500,000 square km (about 8000-1,000,000 square miles)) Historical range: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Arizona south through Mexico, Central America, and South America to eastern Peru, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and northern Argentina. Occurs in the mountains of Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru, but not on the high plateaus of southern Peru and Bolivia (Kitchener 1991); recently recorded in Uruguay (see Kitchener 1991); to elevations of 1000 m. In the U.S., currently found regularly only in southern Texas (e.g., Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, site of a recent radiotelemetry study). Occurrence in Arizona is based only on a few old records from the vicinity of Fort Verde and Patagonia (Hoffmeister 1986); documentation for these records is less than ideal.

Ocelots are the largest member of the genus Leopardus. They weigh between 8.5 and 16 kg, are between 65 and 97 cm long, and males are considerably larger than females. Their pelage is shorter and less soft and thick than their close relative, the margay (Leopardus wiedii). Their ventral pelage is white and their dorsal pelage ranges from off-white to tawny-yellow to reddish-gray. Pelage coloration varies with habitat, as ocelots from arid scrub regions have grayer coats than those found in tropical forests. Entirely black individuals have been seen but are rare. Usually, ocelots have dark streaks, blotches, or rosettes arranged in small clusters around dark-colored areas that tend to run in parallel, horizontal chains. Rosettes and blotches are bordered with black and have a lighter-colored center. Ocelots have two black stripes on their cheeks, black ears with a central yellow spot, and one or two black transverse bars on the insides of the legs. Facial patterns are very distinct, permitting easy recognition of individuals. Their long tail is typically ringed, but may only be marked with dark bars on the dorsal surface. Relative to body-size, they have large paws, which is why their Spanish name is "manigordo", meaning big feet. Additionally, their fore paws are broader than their hind paws. Like other members of the suborder Feliformia, ocelots lack a third molar, have an absent or reduced postglenoid foramen at the base of the skulls, and an anterior palatine canal that passes through the maxilla. They have a concave muzzle and the dental formula is 3/3, 1/1, 3/2, 1/1 for a total of 30 teeth. Their basal metabolic rate is approximately 0.298 cm^3 oxygen/hour.

Range mass: 8.5 to 16 kg.

Range length: 65 to 97 cm.

Average basal metabolic rate: .298 cm^3 oxygen/hour.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Average basal metabolic rate: 17.368 W.

Length: 125 cm

Weight: 14000 grams

Differs from the jaguar in much smaller size (jaguar is 157-242 cm in total length) and pelage spots not forming distinct rosettes. Differs from Felis wiedii and F. TIGRINA in being larger (hind foot longer than 145 mm vs. shorter, greatest length of skull more than 120 mm vs. shorter, length of P4 more than 12.7 mm vs. shorter) (Hall 1981). Differs from young mountain lion in having spots arranged in rows or in a chainlike pattern.

• Terrestrial

Ocelots are found in a variety of habitats, including tropical forests, savannah grasslands, mangrove forests and marshes, and thorn scrub regions. They generally live at elevations below 1,200 m, but have been sighted at 3,800 m as well. Their primary habitat requirement is dense vegetative cover. Ocelots are found in open areas only when it's cloudy or at night when there is a new moon.

Range elevation: <1200 to 3800 m.

Habitat Regions: tropical

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

Wetlands: marsh

Comments: Habitats with good cover; when active by day, tends to keep hidden in dense brush (Emmons and Feer 1990). Inhabits dense chaparral thickets in Texas. Elsewhere, occurs in humid tropical forests, mangrove forests, swampy savannas, brushland, and riverine scrub in deserts. Where not hunted, adapts well to disturbed habitats around villages; often uses man-made trails (Emmons and Feer 1990). Mainly terrestrial but climbs, jumps, and swims well (Nowak 1991). Dens are in caves, hollow trees, thickets, or the spaces between the closed buttress roots of large trees; rarely climbs but sometimes may sleep on tree branch.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Home range in Texas reportedly is a few square kilometers (Kitchener 1991). In Peru, adult females occupied exclusive home ranges of about 2 sq km; male ranges were several times larger, exclusive of those of other males, and overlapped multiple female ranges; individuals often were solitary but appeared to make contact with others frequently (Emmons 1988).

Ocelots are highly skilled hunters, tracking prey by odor trails, and have an average of 0.9 prey captures per kilometer traveled. Once a prey item is captured, they eat at the kill site and cover the remains when they are finished. Similar to other felids, ocelots are well-adapted to their carnivorous diet, shearing ingested tissue from carcasses with their carnassials, while depending on strong digestive enzymes to help break down ingested proteins.

The diet of ocelots consists of 65 to 66% small rodents, 12 to 18% reptiles, 6 to 10% medium-sized mammals, 4 to 11% birds, and 2 to 7% crustaceans and fish. Their primary prey consists of nocturnal species, including cane mice (Zygodontomys), spiny rats (Echimyidae), common agoutis (Dasyprocta), opossums (Didelphimorphia), and armadillos (Cingulata). Although most prey weighs less than 1 to 3% of their body weight, ocelots also take larger prey, including lesser anteaters (Tamandua tetradactyla), red brocket deer Mazama americana, squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus), and land tortoises (Testudinidae).

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; reptiles; fish; mollusks; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)

Comments: Feeds on various small to moderate-sized vertebrates: rodents, rabbits, and other small mammals; young deer and peccaries; birds (sometimes including domestic poultry); snakes; lizards; fishes; etc. Hunts and captures prey on the ground (Emmons and Feer 1990).

Ocelots significantly impact their environment as predators. Although they feed primarily on terrestrial vertebrates, ocelots are opportunistic hunters and prey upon many types of animals. Occasionally, they serve as prey for larger carnivores (e.g., jaguar, Panthera onca) and are host to numerous parasites.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Paragonimus
• Taeniidae
• Strongylida
• Toxocara cati
• Capillaria
• Spiruridae
• Aelurostrongylus
• Oncicola
• Hammondia pardalis
• Isospora

Although predators themselves, ocelots occasionally become the prey of harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja), pumas (Puma concolor), jaguars (Panthera onca), and anacondas (Eunectes murinus). Many of the characteristics that make them great predators may be useful as antipredator defense mechanisms (e.g., camouflage, keen senses, etc.).

Known Predators:

• harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja)
• puma (Puma concolor)
• jaguar (Panthera onca)
• anaconda (Eunectes murinus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 21 - 80

Unknown

Comments: Fewer than 1000 individuals of subspecies ALBESCENS (Texas and adjacent northeastern Mexico to southern Tamaulipas) are thought to survive (Nowak 1991); 100-130 individuals in Texas according to Caesar Kleberg Institute, 1983. Unknown numbers elsewhere.

Population density in Costa Rica was estimated at 14-25/100 sq km (Kitchener 1991). In Brazil, Trolle and Kery (2003) used capture-recapture analysis of camera-trapping data to estimate density at 2.82 independent individuals per 5 sq km.

Leopardus pardalis has keen senses of smell and vision. It uses its sense of smell to locate, track, and approach prey as well as to determine territorial boundaries. They have acute binocular vision that is well-developed for hunting at night. Leopardus pardalis communicates with conspecifics using chemical signals to demarcate territorial boundaries and vocalizations (e.g., mews and yowls) to attract and communicate with potential mates.

Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Nocturnal and diurnal; mainly nocturnal (Emmons and Feer 1990).

In the wild, ocelots live between 7 and 10 years. The oldest known captive ocelot lived to be 21.5 years old in the Phoenix Zoo.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 7 to 10 years.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 21.5 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 20.3 years.

Ocelots are solitary and polygynous, with a single male home range overlapping those of several females. During estrus, females attract potential mates by making loud yowls, similar to those made by domestic cats (Felis catus). After mating pairs are formed, ocelots copulate between 5 and 10 times daily. The likelihood of conception per estrus, which lasts approximately 5 days, is 0.6.

Mating System: polygynous

Ocelots are year-round breeders in the tropics, but autumn and winter birthing peaks reportedly occur in the northern parts of their range (e.g., Mexico and Texas). Estrus lasts 4.63 days on average, and their estrus cycle lasts 25.11 days on average. Once pregnant, females create a den in thick brush where parturition occurs. Gestation lasts 79 to 85 days, and litter sizes range from 1 to 3 kittens, with an average of 1.63 kittens/litter. Young weigh between 200 and 340 g at birth. Females are thought to have 1 litter every 2 years.

Ocelots are weaned by 6 weeks old and reach adult size at about 8 to 10 months old. Females reach sexual maturity at 18 to 22 months old and may breed until they are 13 years old. Males may become sexually mature as early as 15 months; however, spermatogenesis typically begins around 30 months. Evidence suggests that sexual maturation in males is related to territory acquisition.

Breeding interval: Ocelots typically have one to two young every two years.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 3.

Average number of offspring: 1.63.

Range gestation period: 79 to 85 days.

Range birth mass: 200 to 340 g.

Average weaning age: 6 weeks.

Average time to independence: 12 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 18 to 22 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 15 (low) months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 30 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Average number of offspring: 2.

Females alone provide parental care to their young. Juvenile ocelots are weaned by 6 weeks old and begin to observe their mother during hunts a few months after birth. They are independent at approximately 1 year, but may be tolerated in their mother's home range until about 2 years old. After dispersing, juveniles must find their own territories.

Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Texas: breeds in late summer. Births occur in fall and winter in Texas and Mexico (Leopold 1959). Tropics: breeds year-round. Gestation lasts about 70 days. Litter size is 2-4 (usually 2).

Due to their abundance and broad distribution, ocelots are list as a species of "least concern" according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Major threats to their persistence include habitat loss and fragmentation, illegal trade as pets and pelts, and retaliatory killings by poultry farmers. Despite this, ocelots have made a strong recovery and it was estimated that there were between 1.5 and 3 million ocelots living in 1996.

Due to their popularity in Western fur trade, ocelots were nearly extinct by the mid 1980's. Concern over their potential extinction contributed to the formation of the 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The selling of ocelot fur significantly decreased in the 1980's and is no longer considered a threat to their survival.

Once found as far east as Louisiana and Arkansas and now found only in southernmost Texas, Leopardus pardalis albescens is the only subspecies that is classified as endangered. This subspecies' declining numbers are likely the result of habitat loss, which is forcing individuals to have larger home ranges in order to support their daily prey requirements. However, larger home ranges may decrease mating opportunities.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N1 - Critically Imperiled

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Reasons: Widely distributed from Texas to South America; populations are reduced and/or declining in many areas, though good data are scant; threatened by continued destruction of suitable habitat, exploitation for fur, and predator control.

Degree of Threat: A : Very threatened throughout its range communities directly exploited or their composition and structure irreversibly threatened by man-made forces, including exotic species

Comments: Clearing of brush for agricultural purposes has been a problem in the northern part of the range. Has declined throughout much of Central and South American range, due to hunting for fur (now curtailed compared to previous large harvests), predator control, and habitat loss.

Biological Research Needs: Determine home range area and food habits.

Global Protection: Unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed

Needs: Protect suitable habitat from degradation. U.S.: continue, as needed, habitat restoration at Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, Texas.

In regions where natural prey abundances have been significantly reduced, ocelots may kill and eat domestic fowl.

From the early 1960's to the mid 1980's, there was high demand for spotted-cat furs in Western society. During this time, a coat made of ocelot fur could sell for $40,000 (U.S.) in western Germany. Ocelots were also popular as exotic pets, costing as much as $800 per individual. After the 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the international trade of ocelots and their by-products (e.g., fur) became illegal in most countries. However, one can still buy such items at the Managua International Airport in Nicaragua or illegally on the black market.

Ocelots may be beneficial to humans by controlling rodent populations that could be considered agricultural pests.

Positive Impacts: pet trade ; body parts are source of valuable material; controls pest population

Comments: Formerly intensively hunted for the skin trade, prior to recent restrictions on trade and changes in socially acceptable clothing styles. Reported to be much in demand for use as a pet, a live animal selling for $800 (Nowak 1991).

Comments: Formerly included in the genus FELIS. Included in the genus Leopardus by Wozencraft (in Wilson and Reeder 1993), Murray and Gardner (1997), and Jones et al. (1997).