Bonefish are found in warm tropical waters from the southern coast of Florida, through the Bahamas and along the eastern coast of South America. Bonefish can also be found in the Pacific ocean from coastal California to Peru in South America. This range is roughly from 35 degrees north to 15 degrees south of the equator.  Although bonefish are typically found in warmer climates, there have been reports of sightings into northern portions of the Atlantic coast in the United States.

Biogeographic Regions: oceanic islands (Native ); atlantic ocean (Native ); pacific ocean (Native )

Bonefish have slender bodies with silver scales. They have numerous black stripes that run the length of the body. Adults vary in length, growing as large as 90 to 100 cm in size. There is sexual dimorphism, with females being larger than males. Males are from 40 to 50 cm, females are typically 2 to 5 cm larger than males. Larger fish can weigh as much as 7 to 9 kg, with most bonefish falling between 2 and 4 kg.

Range mass: 9 (high) kg.

Average mass: 2-4 kg.

Range length: 100 (high) cm.

Average length: 40-50 cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: female larger

Bonefish are found in varying water depths. They can be found in waters as deep as 100 m but, while feeding, can be found in extremely shallow waters. During feeding times, bonefish can be found in waters as shallow as 10 cm. When not feeding, bonefish retreat to deeper waters.

Range depth: 0.01 to 100 m.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; saltwater or marine

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

Bonefish are predators and consume a variety of prey. They feed on many small mollusks and crustaceans in shallow water. The majority of their diet consists of small crabs, fish, and shrimp, including xanthid and portunid crabs, toadfish, and snapping and penaeid shrimp (Crabtree et al., 1998). Bonefish normally school, but break into smaller groups to feed.

Animal Foods: fish; aquatic crustaceans

Primary Diet: carnivore (Piscivore , Eats non-insect arthropods)

Bonefish play an important role the food chain in their ecosystem. As predators, they play a role in keeping smaller fish and crustacean populations in check. As prey, A. vulpes provides a food source for their predators, including sharks and barracudas. Bonefish are also used as hosts by Spinitectus beaveri, a nematoda parasite.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• nematode parasites (Spinitectus beaveri)

As large fish, bonefish have few predators as adults. As larvae and young, however, bonefish are probably preyed on by a wide variety of other fish and aquatic predators. Predators of adult bonefish are mainly barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda) and various sharks (nurse sharks, Pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum, blacktip sharks, Carcharhinus limbatus, tiger sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier, bonnethead sharks, Sphyrna tiburo and lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris). Humans (Homo sapiens) are another source of predation. In Florida waters, bonefish are protected and only one fish per day is allowed per angler.

Known Predators:

• barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda)
• nurse sharks (Pseudoginglymostoma brevicaudatum)
• blacktip sharks (Carcharhinus limbatus)
• tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier)
• bonnethead sharks (Sphyrna tiburo)
• lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris)
• humans (Homo sapiens)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Bonefish are a schooling species, they maintain large groups of individuals. Bonefish have good eye sight and a very good sense of smell, this is how they interact in the environment.

Communication Channels: visual

Fertilized eggs hatch into larvae, which goes through three developmental stages, in the first stage the larvae do not grow, followed by two stages in which the larvae grow larger. During the development stages, larvae are clear in color and very thin. After development is complete, juveniles gradually grow larger until they reach adult size.

Development - Life Cycle: metamorphosis

Bonefish have an average life span of 5 to 10 years, but there are some records of this species living over 20 years.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 5 to 10 years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 20 years.

Reproduction occurs seasonally in bonefish, spawning mainly occurs from November to late May or early June. Bonefish are polygynandrous. They randomly mate, with eggs and sperm released into open water among other males and females.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

In bonefish spawning occurs throughout the year. During spawning, females release their eggs, which are then fertilized externally by males in the immediate area as the eggs are released. Spawning occurs in deep water containing a current to move the fertilized eggs. Spawning typically is accomplished in schools, resulting in random or group fertilization. Males and females do not have a distinct partner during spawning.

Breeding interval: Breeding occurs once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from November to June.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4 to 7 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 to 5 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); broadcast (group) spawning; oviparous ; sperm-storing

During spawning season, females release eggs into the water column and males release sperm. After spawning, there is no parental care. Eggs develop in the water column.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female)

Bonefish are not a listed species. Although they are not protected, fishing for bonefish is regulated.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

Humans can be afflicted with ciguatera poisoning through eating bonefish if the fish themselves are affected.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (poisonous )

Bonefish are a widely prized sport fish among anglers. Bonefish cannot be commercially sold, so there is no impact from direct sales of the fish. However, purchases by anglers have economic impacts in Florida and the Bahamas.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism