The most distinctive feature of the kokako is its haunting song. The dawn chorus begins with each bird opening and closing its wings and fanning its tail, then arching the neck and uttering gentle mewing and buzzing sounds before launching into full song. The song resembles the sound of an organ with loud, clear and melodious notes (4). Males and females pair throughout the year and sometimes for several years (7). The male and female will answer each other's song for up to half an hour with impressive harmony. Birds in the surrounding area sing together from the top of tall trees on ridges producing an extraordinary chorus, which serves to defend their five to twenty hectare territories (4). The birds also communicate through calls, clicks, buzzes and screeches which are all socially specific. Kokako are poor fliers, but their powerful legs allow them to leap, run and jump through trees in search of fruits, leaves and insects (4). Breeding usually takes place between November and February but in years of abundant food supply it can last from October through to May (8), and pairs might raise up to three broods in one season (7). The female builds a large and untidy nest between branches fairly high in the trees (2 to 35 metres), beginning with a twig base, and weaving together moss, lichen, rotten wood and ferns, before lining the nest bowl with tree fern scales. The nest is built in dense foliage, with small contributions of material from the male, and is well concealed from aerial predators. In each clutch, the female lays two or three pinkish grey eggs with brown and purple spots, and these hatch after 18 days of incubation by the female alone. The male works to feed himself, his partner and the new hatchlings. The nestling begins life with pink wattles and fledges after 30 to 45 days (7). During the first year they must find an unoccupied area for their territory and their wattles will change from pink to blue or orange, depending on the subspecies (8).

This medium-sized wattlebird has blue-grey feathers with black legs and bill, and a black highway-man mask which is in striking contrast to the wattles under the throat. There were two subspecies of kokako; the North Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea wilsoni) has blue wattles on the throat, whereas the now-extinct South Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea cinerea) had orange wattles. The wings are short and rounded (4).

The most distinctive feature of the kokako is its haunting song. The dawn chorus begins with each bird opening and closing its wings and fanning its tail, then arching the neck and uttering gentle mewing and buzzing sounds before launching into full song. The song resembles the sound of an organ with loud, clear and melodious notes (4). Males and females pair throughout the year and sometimes for several years (7). The male and female will answer each other's song for up to half an hour with impressive harmony. Birds in the surrounding area sing together from the top of tall trees on ridges producing an extraordinary chorus, which serves to defend their five to twenty hectare territories (4). The birds also communicate through calls, clicks, buzzes and screeches which are all socially specific. Kokako are poor fliers, but their powerful legs allow them to leap, run and jump through trees in search of fruits, leaves and insects (4). Breeding usually takes place between November and February but in years of abundant food supply it can last from October through to May (8), and pairs might raise up to three broods in one season (7). The female builds a large and untidy nest between branches fairly high in the trees (2 to 35 metres), beginning with a twig base, and weaving together moss, lichen, rotten wood and ferns, before lining the nest bowl with tree fern scales. The nest is built in dense foliage, with small contributions of material from the male, and is well concealed from aerial predators. In each clutch, the female lays two or three pinkish grey eggs with brown and purple spots, and these hatch after 18 days of incubation by the female alone. The male works to feed himself, his partner and the new hatchlings. The nestling begins life with pink wattles and fledges after 30 to 45 days (7). During the first year they must find an unoccupied area for their territory and their wattles will change from pink to blue or orange, depending on the subspecies (8).

This medium-sized wattlebird has blue-grey feathers with black legs and bill, and a black highway-man mask which is in striking contrast to the wattles under the throat. There were two subspecies of kokako; the North Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea wilsoni) has blue wattles on the throat, whereas the now-extinct South Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea cinerea) had orange wattles. The wings are short and rounded (4).

The most distinctive feature of the kokako is its haunting song. The dawn chorus begins with each bird opening and closing its wings and fanning its tail, then arching the neck and uttering gentle mewing and buzzing sounds before launching into full song. The song resembles the sound of an organ with loud, clear and melodious notes (4). Males and females pair throughout the year and sometimes for several years (7). The male and female will answer each other's song for up to half an hour with impressive harmony. Birds in the surrounding area sing together from the top of tall trees on ridges producing an extraordinary chorus, which serves to defend their five to twenty hectare territories (4). The birds also communicate through calls, clicks, buzzes and screeches which are all socially specific. Kokako are poor fliers, but their powerful legs allow them to leap, run and jump through trees in search of fruits, leaves and insects (4). Breeding usually takes place between November and February but in years of abundant food supply it can last from October through to May (8), and pairs might raise up to three broods in one season (7). The female builds a large and untidy nest between branches fairly high in the trees (2 to 35 metres), beginning with a twig base, and weaving together moss, lichen, rotten wood and ferns, before lining the nest bowl with tree fern scales. The nest is built in dense foliage, with small contributions of material from the male, and is well concealed from aerial predators. In each clutch, the female lays two or three pinkish grey eggs with brown and purple spots, and these hatch after 18 days of incubation by the female alone. The male works to feed himself, his partner and the new hatchlings. The nestling begins life with pink wattles and fledges after 30 to 45 days (7). During the first year they must find an unoccupied area for their territory and their wattles will change from pink to blue or orange, depending on the subspecies (8).

This medium-sized wattlebird has blue-grey feathers with black legs and bill, and a black highway-man mask which is in striking contrast to the wattles under the throat. There were two subspecies of kokako; the North Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea wilsoni) has blue wattles on the throat, whereas the now-extinct South Island kokako (Callaeas cinerea cinerea) had orange wattles. The wings are short and rounded (4).

This species is endemic to New Zealand. The last confirmed sightings of the South Island subspecies cinerea were in 1967¹. The North Island subspecies wilsoni survives in the Hunua Ranges, Mataraua, Kaharoa, Rotoehu, Pureora and Mapara forests, and Te Urewera National Park⁵. Its total adult population is estimated at 1,538 birds, but there is still a predominance of males and the breeding population is now 769 pairs^9,10. Populations are increasing in areas of intensive conservation work including the establishment of translocated populations at Secretary Island and Omaio/East Cape⁹, but continue to decline elsewhere, with most unmanaged sites now extinct. Observed rates of decline have been as high as 50% in three years in some areas^2,4. Subpopulations are entirely isolated by fragmentation². This species is entirely conservation-dependent, each population requiring ongoing annual pest-management until at least 25 breeding pairs are present, followed by at least 3 years of management every 10 years to maintain population growth. Although the population is now increasing thanks to the intensive management conducted for the species, the number of locations where it is found continues to decline as unmanaged populations disappear, and over the past three generations the global population has certainly shown a very rapid decline.

Callaeas cinereus, commonly known as kōkakos, is endemic to New Zealand. Kōkakos were historically found in abundance through out the North Island, but are now reduced to 15 populations, concentrated in the mainland’s northern and central forests. Populations can also naturally be found on islands 50 km from the North Island mainland. The estimated total amount of adult kōkakos as of 2010 was 1,538 adults, 769 of which were breeding pairs. In an effort of conservation, translocation programs from 1990 to 1997 have taken individuals from several different populations on the North Island mainland to Kapiti Island and the southern portion of the North Island.

Biogeographic Regions: oceanic islands (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: island endemic

Historic Range:
New Zealand

As the last remaining subspecies of the wattlebird family to be found on the New Zealand mainland, the North Island kokako used to inhabit the whole of the North Island, but populations now occur in small and fragmented areas of the North Island and on four offshore islands. Translocations have taken place to create populations on Little Barrier, Kapiti, Tiritiri Matangi and Lady Alice Islands (4). The South Island kokako used to inhabit South and Stewart Islands, but is now deemed to be extinct (5).

As the last remaining subspecies of the wattlebird family to be found on the New Zealand mainland, the North Island kokako used to inhabit the whole of the North Island, but populations now occur in small and fragmented areas of the North Island and on four offshore islands. Translocations have taken place to create populations on Little Barrier, Kapiti, Tiritiri Matangi and Lady Alice Islands (4). The South Island kokako used to inhabit South and Stewart Islands, but is now deemed to be extinct (5).

As the last remaining subspecies of the wattlebird family to be found on the New Zealand mainland, the North Island kokako used to inhabit the whole of the North Island, but populations now occur in small and fragmented areas of the North Island and on four offshore islands. Translocations have taken place to create populations on Little Barrier, Kapiti, Tiritiri Matangi and Lady Alice Islands (4). The South Island kokako used to inhabit South and Stewart Islands, but is now deemed to be extinct (5).

Kōkakos are of medium size, measuring 38 to 50 cm in length, weighing on average 219 g. Feathers are blue-grey in color, the beak, legs, and face mask are black. The beak is round and short, and the legs are long and slender. Wings are short and round with a wing span averaging only 50.2 to 52.1 cm, contributing to its limited flight capability. Directly under the beak is a cobalt blue wattle; a soft mass of tissue. There is one extinct and one extant subspecies of C. cinereus. The South Island subspecies, C. c. cinera, was recently declared extinct by the New Zealand Department of Conservation in 2007. The last documented sighting of South Island kōkakos was in 1967. The North Island subspecies, C. c. wilsoni, is classified as endangered. The distinction between the North and South island kōkakos are wattle coloring. The wattle of South Island kōkakos was bright orange, while the wattle of adult North Island kōkakos is cobalt blue. Adult wattles vary in the brightness and hue depending on the age and condition of the individual bird.

Kōkako eggs have an oval shape, and are pink-grey in color with variations of brown and purple streaks and spots. Eggs are 33 to 43.75 mm in length, 22.65 to 28.35 mm in width, and weigh (±1g) 15 to 16g. Young kōkakos have dull brown-green coloring on the majority of their feathers except for their abdomens and under their tails, which are yellow-brown. A nestling’s wattle is pink when first hatched and becomes pale blue with age. There is little distinction between males and females, both possessing the same patterns and colors.

Range mass: 210 to 245 g.

Average mass: 219 g.

Range length: 38 to 50 cm.

Range wingspan: 50.2 to 52.1 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger; ornamentation

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Kōkakos are found on the Northern Island of New Zealand in areas with specific hardwoods, such as podocarps, and a variety of shrubs. Their nests are primarily found in wooded gullies and ridges built towards the top of trees, well covered by canopy. When foraging for food, kōkakos stay primarily in the canopy and the upper understory. Kōkakos are territorial, and therefore require far reaching forests to accommodate. Territories vary in size depending on the region that is occupied, but on average live in territories of 4 to 12 ha.

Range elevation: 2 to 38 m.

Average elevation: 13 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: rainforest

These beautiful birds are found in middle to low layers of temperate forest with a high diversity of plant species and generally, very little human disturbance (1) (2) (3), although kokako can persist in some very modified habitat, such as on Tiritiri Matangi Island, if mammalian predators are completely absent (6).

These beautiful birds are found in middle to low layers of temperate forest with a high diversity of plant species and generally, very little human disturbance (1) (2) (3), although kokako can persist in some very modified habitat, such as on Tiritiri Matangi Island, if mammalian predators are completely absent (6).

These beautiful birds are found in middle to low layers of temperate forest with a high diversity of plant species and generally, very little human disturbance (1) (2) (3), although kokako can persist in some very modified habitat, such as on Tiritiri Matangi Island, if mammalian predators are completely absent (6).

kōkakos' food habits vary from year-to-year, by season, and territory. In general they are omnivorous and feed on fruit, foliage, insects, flowers, and buds. In one study, three sample forest areas yielded more than 100 different food items eaten by kōkakos, reflecting the local ecology. The greatest portion of kōkakos' diets was composed of fruit followed by the leaves of dicotyledonous shrub and tree species within their territorial areas. This included, but was not limited to, the fruit and leaves of raukawa, fivefinger, tawa, and rearewa. A smaller contribution to kōkakos' diets includes sixpenny scale insects (Ctenochiton viridis), flowers, buds, and gymnosperm cones, respectfully, from greatest contribution to smallest.

The amount of time spent feeding varies, along with diet, from season to season. Less time is spent foraging during spring and summer months and is increased greatly from autumn to winter. The greatest amount of time spent feeding occurs during the winter months, even with the decrease in day length. The amount of sixpenny scale insects consumed is relatively low during much of the year, in exception to the spring months when these invertebrates encompass the majority of kōkakos' diets.

Animal Foods: insects

Plant Foods: leaves; fruit; flowers

Primary Diet: omnivore

Fruit makes up the largest portion of kōkakos' diets. Small fruits of a variety of plant species are consumed whole, allowing for the opportunity for seed dispersal. However, due to decreasing population numbers, poor flight capabilities, and stationary territorial lifestyles, kōkakos do not likely have a large ecological effect on the dispersal of seeds. This is also true regarding browsing and the defoliation of plants. Sixpenny scale insects, an important food source for kōkakos during spring months, live on the undersides of leaves and the leaves are systematically picked off. A pair of kōkakos was observed detatching 60 leaves in a 20 minute period. It is believed that when kōkakos flourished throughout New Zealand, before European settlement, it may have had a larger ecological effect on seed dispersal, browsing, and defoliation.

Though kōkakos may be relatively well hidden and protected from avian predators, introduced mammalian species have little to no difficulty seeking out and obliterating entire clutches. Kōkakos adapted alongside diurnal avian predators that rely mainly on sight to detect prey. Introduced mammalian predators, in contrast, are nocturnal and rely heavily on sight, auditory, and olfactory cues. Nests are not only untidy in structure, but reek of feces. A nest of juveniles can be detected by the human nose more than ten meters away. A combination of the smell, sound of hatchlings begging, and the nocturnal foraging habits of these unfamiliar predators, make kōkakos' nests easy targets. Adult male and female kōkakos, when attacked by a mammalian predator will respond by deserting the nest and hiding until the threat has lifted.

Known Predators:

• moreporks (Ninox novaeseelandiae)
• New Zealand falcons (Falco novaseelandiae)
• Australasain harriers (Circus approximans)
• possums (Phalangeriformes suborder)
• black rats (Rattus rattus)
• stoats (Mustela erminea)
• weasels (Mustela nivalis)
• ferrets (Mustela furo)
• feral cats (Felis catus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Kōkakos communicate to others of its species by an organ-like song. The native people of New Zealand, the Maori, call its haunting and unique song, “Te Koha Waiata”, translated as “the gift song”. Call phrasing is not sexually specific and can be observed in both pair-bonds and singular birds as a means of territorial defense, and is referred to as an antiphonic duet. An antiphonic duet is when one bird begins a phrase and after a pause the other ends it, alternating male and female contribution to the song. Kōkakos can distinguish between a single bird and a pair-bond by their ability to detect the spatial gap between the pair. Because territory is guarded year round, this duet behavior advertises that there are two protecting the territory to their surrounding neighbors, decreasing the likelihood of territory invasion and confrontation. A population of kōkakos will let their neighbors know where their territory is and if a pair-bond inhabits it by joining in a chorus, in which the surrounding population sings together at dawn. The defense of a territory or mate is not the only purpose for kōkakos' songs. One contributing factor to a female’s mate choice is the phrase type of the male’s song. There are 18 different phrases in a kōkako’s song, 86% of which are locally unique to each population. Given the choice, a female will pick a male from the same population in which she originated. Like most birds, kōkakos perceive their environments through visual, auditory, tactile and chemical stimuli.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Other Communication Modes: duets ; choruses

Kōkakos are a long lived species. The North Island Kōkako Recovery Plan, conducted in 1999 to 2006, states that the oldest documented kōkako in the wild was 11 years old. The expected lifespan of a juvenile, who has fledged from the nest and is recruiting for a new territory, is estimated at 10.6 years old. It is believed that a kōkako can live 20 years or more. The main focus of breeding in captivity is to be able to release kōkakos into the wild to replace the dwindling, or nonexistent, populations that once flourished. Therefore, there are no known statistics for the oldest kōkako in captivity.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 11 years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 10.6 years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 20 years.

Kōkakos are monogamous birds that find, attract, and defend mates through song. After a juvenile fledges from the nest it begins recruitment for a pair-bond: 1 to 2 years after for females and 2 to 4 years after for males. Pair-bonding is not restricted to male and female matches, but can include female-female and male-male. Female-female pair-bonds will form an attachment to a territory for a short period of time, and attempt to mate at least once per season. These bonds are not recorded in recent literature due to increasing predation of nesting females by introduced mammalian species. In contrast, male-male pair-bonds occur regularly. Many experts believe that this is a recent phenomenon that is a direct result of the surplus male population, but others speculate that juvenile males will choose a same sex bond even when there are females available. Mating-pairs usually stay with the same partner for many years. Both the male and female are active in territorial protection and year round courtship rituals, including preening at the base of the beak and offerings of food to the female by the male. Kōkakos sexual selection is based on female choice. Females have been known to travel to up to nine different unpaired male territories before settling on a mate. Initially, the female is drawn to a male’s territory by the phrasing of his song, but a definitive choice is made based on the quality of resources within the territory and the physicality (body size, color of plumage, overall health) of the male. A male proves his physical health to the female by performing an “archangel” display, in which he lowers his head, extends his wings, and vigorously runs along branches near the female. During this display males are known to have leaves or twigs in their beak. Both the male and the female take part in mate guarding. Kōkakos' antiphonic duets relays the identity of the pair, how long they have been bonded, and the level of dedication to neighboring territories. During the dawn chorus a pair-bond or single kōkakos will perch at the top of a tall tree, usually a podocarp, within its territory and perform the duet or single song. The tall perch allows the birds to see their neighbors and enables them to be heard.

Mating System: monogamous

Once a mating pair is established in a territory, nesting and reproduction begins. The breeding season runs on average from October to March, but for some ‘good’ seasons can extend six months after. ‘Good’ and ‘bad’ seasons seem to have a correlation with fruit availability, which makes up a large portion of kōkakos' diets. During a mating season kōkakos have been known to attempt breeding up to five times. In the event of a nest failure, due to predation or infertile eggs, the female can begin to re-nest within 4 to 5 weeks. In a successful season a pair has been known to fledge three clutches, each clutch containing an average of two eggs, at most three, which are laid at a one day interval. The average output of fledged offspring per season is six, assuming it is a ‘good’ season. In the event of a ‘bad’ season the youngest chick, which was laid last, usually does not fledge. Once laid, the eggs are incubated for 18 days on average before hatching, and chicks weigh 15 to 16 g at birth. During the first ten days of the chick’s life it experiences a growth rate of 10 g per day. The chicks stay in the nest for a period of 34 to more than 42 days before fledging, and even after fledging stay with their parents for 10 to 12 weeks. After a juvenile has fledged, on average, a female becomes sexually mature in 1 to 2 years, while a male becomes sexually mature within 2 to 4 years. At this time both the male and female begin recruitment for a pair-bond.

Breeding interval: Kokakos have been known to breed up to five times within one, annual breeding season.

Breeding season: The breeding season for Kokakos begins in October and runs until February.

Range eggs per season: 3 to 9.

Average time to hatching: 18 days.

Range birth mass: 15 to 16 g.

Range fledging age: 31 to 42 days.

Average fledging age: 34 days.

Range time to independence: 10 to 12 weeks.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 to 2 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 to 4 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

At birth, kōkakos are altricial and are incapable of taking care of themselves. A day old chick hatches with its eyes closed, no feathers, and limited movement, relying entirely on parental care for the first month and a half of its life. For kōkakos, the parental investment of the female is much more involved than that of the male. Pre-fertilization the female builds the nest almost completely on her own. The male does present some twigs and foliage to the female for nest building, while performing an ‘archangel’ display (found in greater detail in the mating system section). Male kōkakos are not incapable of building a nest. It is common for males to build nests when they form male-male pair-bonds. The nest is a bowl shaped, untidy mass made of a twig base, and entwined moss, lichen, ferns, treefern scales, epiphytic orchid, and dead wood built 2 to 32 m above the ground. The longest recorded time for nest construction is 11 days, but usually it is only a 2 to 5 day process. When the female begins construction she randomly gathers bits and pieces, spending very little time, but as the time to lay her eggs becomes closer she focuses more on the construction.

Before hatching, females and eggs are most vulnerable to predation. Nests are generally well hidden from areal predators by the thick canopy, but are defenseless against introduced mammalian predators, such as possums. When a nest is threatened by indigenous avian predators, such as Australasain harriers and New Zealand falcons, the pair will flee the nest to hide and delay returning until it is safe to come back or desert the nest completely. In the event of a mammalian threat males will hide and delay returning, while females either hide with the male or stay on the nest to become prey along with their eggs. When a nest is threatened by cuckoos, however, kōkakos will launch a physical attack on the invading bird.

Before fledging, both the male and the female will take part in feeding young, foraging with one another. Food for the chicks is brought back to the nest in the beak and throat. Parental investment is reduced as the brood becomes more independent. The length before independence varies from nest to nest. Some parents will allow their offspring to stay in their territory and continue to supply them with food, while others attempt to drive offspring away even before fledging. During the nesting and post-fledging period chicks become familiar with and learn localized song phrasing, leading to later mate choice. When juveniles finally leave the nest they begin to search for a territory of their own, and despite their limited powers of flight, travel reasonably long distances until they settle on a specific area. As an example, juvenile kōkakos in the Rotoehu forest would travel on average 1,450 m in search of a suitable territory.

Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Male, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2009
  Endangered
• 2008
  Endangered
• 2006
  Endangered
• 2004
  Endangered
• 2000
  Endangered
• 1996
  Endangered
• 1994
  Endangered

Kōkakos were listed as an endangered species by 1994 and this status has not changed since. There are several reasons for the endangerment of kōkakos. The destruction of habitat by logging has left only 10% of kokakos' original native habitat, reducing territorial area available to juveniles and lowering food availability. The mammalian predators introduced to New Zealand by European settlers in the 1800s prey mainly on eggs, chicks, juveniles, and nesting females. The large numbers of mammalian predators have decreased fledging success. In the years during pest management 61% of birds fledged, while in years of no management the number was reduced to 29%. The female population of kōkakos has also been altered, leaving a large surplus of male-male bonds, which do not produce offspring. The introduction of browsing mammals, such as possums, goats, and deer, has caused food competition with kōkakos, and is also believed to play a role in the decline of kōkako populations.

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: no special status

Current Listing Status Summary

Status: Endangered
Date Listed: 06/02/1970
Lead Region: Foreign (Region 10) 
Where Listed:


Population detail:

Population location: entire
Listing status: E

For most current information and documents related to the conservation status and management of Callaeas cinerea , see its USFWS Species Profile

Classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1).

Classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1).

Classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List 2007 (1).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

The combination of deforestation and the introduction of invasive mammalian predators in two waves of human colonisation since 1270 AD nearly extirpated this species. Just one quarter of the forest present 1,000 years ago is still standing. European settlers brought with them ship rats, brush-tail possums, stoats and wild cats (1) (2) (4), which prey heavily on young and female kokakos at the nest, leaving an excess of males who are not able to breed. These males sometimes pair up and nest with each other in the absence of female partners (10). Whilst in 1999 the North Island kokako population stood at 1,160 birds, only 396 of these were female, thus limiting the number of reproducing pairs (9).

The combination of deforestation and the introduction of invasive mammalian predators in two waves of human colonisation since 1270 AD nearly extirpated this species. Just one quarter of the forest present 1,000 years ago is still standing. European settlers brought with them ship rats, brush-tail possums, stoats and wild cats (1) (2) (4), which prey heavily on young and female kokakos at the nest, leaving an excess of males who are not able to breed. These males sometimes pair up and nest with each other in the absence of female partners (10). Whilst in 1999 the North Island kokako population stood at 1,160 birds, only 396 of these were female, thus limiting the number of reproducing pairs (9).

The combination of deforestation and the introduction of invasive mammalian predators in two waves of human colonisation since 1270 AD nearly extirpated this species. Just one quarter of the forest present 1,000 years ago is still standing. European settlers brought with them ship rats, brush-tail possums, stoats and wild cats (1) (2) (4), which prey heavily on young and female kokakos at the nest, leaving an excess of males who are not able to breed. These males sometimes pair up and nest with each other in the absence of female partners (10). Whilst in 1999 the North Island kokako population stood at 1,160 birds, only 396 of these were female, thus limiting the number of reproducing pairs (9).

Conservation Actions

Intensive recovery planning and management since the mid 1980s has substantially recovered North Island kokako populations. In 2007, there were 18 increasing populations totalling 850 pairs. Such intensive management is vital, as nearly all unmanaged populations are now extinct. Translocations have established populations on four offshore islands and restored kokako to three sites in their original range (Wairarapa, Hawkes Bay and East Cape), and further translocations are planned as part of widespread active restoration of mainland New Zealand forest ecosystems. The recovery of the kokako requires intensive control of introduced mammal pests, particularly ship rats and brushtail possums (10). Some populations are now managed by pulsed control effort, a method in which pest control has 'on' and 'off' years. This effectively controls pest populations whilst minimising the input of pest control poisons at any site, and means that conservation resources can be spent on other sites or problems during the 'off' years (11).

Intensive recovery planning and management since the mid 1980s has substantially recovered North Island kokako populations. In 2007, there were 18 increasing populations totalling 850 pairs. Such intensive management is vital, as nearly all unmanaged populations are now extinct. Translocations have established populations on four offshore islands and restored kokako to three sites in their original range (Wairarapa, Hawkes Bay and East Cape), and further translocations are planned as part of widespread active restoration of mainland New Zealand forest ecosystems. The recovery of the kokako requires intensive control of introduced mammal pests, particularly ship rats and brushtail possums (10). Some populations are now managed by pulsed control effort, a method in which pest control has 'on' and 'off' years. This effectively controls pest populations whilst minimising the input of pest control poisons at any site, and means that conservation resources can be spent on other sites or problems during the 'off' years (11).

Intensive recovery planning and management since the mid 1980s has substantially recovered North Island kokako populations. In 2007, there were 18 increasing populations totalling 850 pairs. Such intensive management is vital, as nearly all unmanaged populations are now extinct. Translocations have established populations on four offshore islands and restored kokako to three sites in their original range (Wairarapa, Hawkes Bay and East Cape), and further translocations are planned as part of widespread active restoration of mainland New Zealand forest ecosystems. The recovery of the kokako requires intensive control of introduced mammal pests, particularly ship rats and brushtail possums (10). Some populations are now managed by pulsed control effort, a method in which pest control has 'on' and 'off' years. This effectively controls pest populations whilst minimising the input of pest control poisons at any site, and means that conservation resources can be spent on other sites or problems during the 'off' years (11).

Kōkakos have no known negative effects on the economy.

In the process of kōkakos conservation efforts an onslaught on introduced mammalian predators has been implicated by areal poisoning and ground trapping. One of the main species targeted for pest control that affects kōkakos is Australian bush tail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). Possums were introduced to New Zealand in the 1800s by colonizing Europeans to create a base for fur trading. Possums have become so well-adapted to the island that their numbers are now in the millions, which not only affects kōkakos' already dwindling numbers, but the local establishment of farmed cattle and deer. Farmed cattle and deer are of great economic importance to the people of New Zealand and the possum carries a strain of bovine tuberculosis that can infect both cattle and deer. Controlling the population of possums for kōkakos benefits the population size and lowers the chance of infecting local farms. Because kōkakos can only be found in New Zealand, ecotourism contributes to economic growth.