Lepomis cyanellus occurs in central North America, from the plains east of the Rocky Mountain range and west of the Appalachian mountain range, including northeastern Mexico and southeastern Canada. L. cyanellus have been introduced and established in a majority of the continental United States, with the exception of Florida and a few northeastern states. Lepomis cyanellus has been introduced to Africa, South America, Asia, and Europe as an exotic species.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Introduced , Native ); palearctic (Introduced ); oriental (Introduced ); ethiopian (Introduced ); neotropical (Introduced )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: Native to most of central and eastern U.S. west of Appalachians, east of Continental Divide, from Great Lakes region (including Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and Mississippi River basins) south to Gulf Coast states and northeastern Mexico (Gulf Slope drainages from Escambia River, Florida, and Mobile Bay, Georgia and Alabama, to Rio Grande, Texas; introduced widely elsewhere in U.S. and in Germany. Generally common to abundant.

Lepomis cyanellus, like the other members of the Centrarchidae family, is brightly colored. In comparison to the other members it has a wider body (more cigar shaped) and a much larger mouth. They do not grow large enough to be considered desirable “pan-fish,” because their average length is only 12.7 to 15.24 centimeters. This is sometimes due to overpopulation, which can stunt growth. Lepomis cyanellus is blue-green in color with scattered dots of black and a white to yellow belly. They have a dark spot on the soft spinous portion of the dorsal fin, and sometimes a spot on the posterior portion of their anal fin. Females have dusky colored bars on the dorsolateral portion of their body. Immature individuals lack striking color patterns, and instead are plain gray without bands. Breeding males normally have an orange tint to the anal, caudal, pelvic, and posterior dorsal fins and vivid black, orange, and white color on their anal fin. Lepomis cyanellus has palatine teeth and 28 to 29 vertebrae. Entier and Starnes (2001) state that L. cyanellus typically has “anal fin soft rays 9 to 10 (8 to 11). Pectoral fin rays 13 to 15. Gill rakers 11 to 14.”

Range mass: .97 (high) kg.

Range length: 30.48 (high) cm.

Average length: 12.7-15.24 cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male more colorful

Length: 25 cm

Lepomis cyanellus is a species with a wide tolerance to many different aquatic conditions, one reason why they have been successfully introduced elsewhere. They prefer smaller, sluggish streams and ponds, but can also inhabit lakes with weedy shorelines and slow rivers. They tolerate both turbid and clear water.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: benthic ; lakes and ponds; rivers and streams

Habitat Type: Freshwater

Comments: Sluggish warm streams, ponds, and shallow weedy margins of lakes. Usually in vicinity of weed beds. Tolerates both clear and turbid water. Characteristic of, and one the last survivors in, residual pools in intermittent streams in Great Plains region. Eggs are deposited in a single or colonial nest made by the male, often on fine gravel or sandy silt near cover in shallow water 4-355 cm deep (Moyle 1976, Sublette et al. 1990).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Green sunfish are dietary generalists. Green sunfish larvae consume various types of zooplankton and, as they grow, they expand their diets to include insect larvae and small snails. As juveniles and adults their diets expand to add small crayfish, fish eggs, insects, and small fish. It should be noted that, as competition decreases, their average prey size increases.

Animal Foods: fish; eggs; insects; mollusks; terrestrial worms; aquatic crustaceans; zooplankton

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

Comments: Feeds opportunistically on the larger, more active invertebrates that occur with them, and on small fishes. Young feed mostly on crustaceans (zooplankton) and aquatic insect larvae. Adults eat more large aquatic and terrestrial insects, crayfish, and fishes.

Lepomis cyanellus is both a predator and prey, therefore it is a means of transferring energy through the food chain. Since it is such an aggressive species it commonly out competes native fish and affects populations of other aquatic organisms such as crayfish and freshwater mussels.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Lampsilis altilis
• Villosa vibex

Green sunfish, like other members of the family Centrarchidae, have young with a less colorful appearance; they are camouflaged to blend in with vegetation (Entier and Starnes, 2001). Their most common aquatic predators are largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) ; channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) ; flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris); and bullhead catfish (Ameiurus) (Paulson and Hatch, 2004; Chizinski and Pope, 2003).

Known Predators:

• largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)
• channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
• flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris)
• bullhead catfish (Ameiurus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Relatively sedentary; may return to same home range in successive years (Becker 1983).

Because L. cyanellus males lack dusky bars, it could be suggested that the bright and bold colors are means to attract females through visual cues. Males also produce sounds during mating.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Lepomis cyanellus embryos normally hatch in 2 days. Males guard them for another 5 to 7 days, until the young are able to swim to the top to feed.

Lepomis cyanellus typically live between 4 and 6 years in the wild.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 4 to 6 years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 7.5 years.

Lepomis cyanellus males normally build nests in sunny areas with a gravel substrate and preferably with cover, like rocks, logs, or clumps of grass. They construct depressions by forceful movement of their caudal fins in shallow water (4 to 355 cm deep). The nests are constructed in both colonies and singularly. The nests are aggressively defended by males. Spawning normally occurs 1 to 2 days after nest construction, when a male leads a female to his nest with the production of sounds. They then swim in circles above the nest before they actually spawn. Males can spawn with several females simultaneously.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Spawning occurs in Lepomis cyanellus when the water rises above 21 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit). It is thought that L. cyanellus may produce the same number of eggs as Lepomis macrochirus, which is roughly 50,000. It takes normally 1 to 2 days for the eggs to hatch and another 5 to 7 days of protection from the male until they become independent (Parr, 2002).

Breeding interval: Green sunfish can spawn up to every 8 to 10 days during spawning season.

Breeding season: Spawning occurs from May to August.

Range number of offspring: 50,000 (high) .

Average time to hatching: 2 days.

Range time to independence: 5 to 7 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 3 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization (External ); oviparous

Lepomis cyanellus males are caretakers of the young. Males start by fanning the eggs to promote oxygenation. They defend nests from predators before and after hatching.

Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male)

Spawns in spring and summer; eggs hatch in about 2 days; male generally guards nest for about 5-7 days; usually sexually mature at beginning of 3rd year; may nest in colony or singly (Moyle 1976, Becker 1983).

Lepomis cyanellus is not listed endangered or threatened either nationally or internationally. They are common and abundant throughout their range.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N3 - Vulnerable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Lepomis cyanellus is problematic for fish management because they often outcompete native fish. These fish have become an issue in bass-bluegill poulation management.

Although L. cyanellus is barely suitable as a "pan-fish," they can be exciting to catch. They have a tendency to attack almost any bait and provide a tough fight for anglers, given their size.

Comments: Reported to hybridize with Lepomis gulosus, Macrochirus, and L. MEGALOTIS. Though the gender of the name Lepomis is feminine (see Bailey and Robins, 1988, Bull. Zool. Nomencl. 45(2):100), the 1991 AFS checklist (Robins et al. 1991) retained the masculine ending for CYANELLUS and other species, pending a vote by the ICZN on a petition (by Etnier and Warren) to treat Lepomis as masculine for nomenclatural purposes.