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Overview
Brief Summary
The cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae), also known as the cabbage butterfly and the imported cabbageworm, is so named because the larval stage feeds on members of the cabbage family (Cruciferae). This species is found around the world in temperate climates. It was introduced to North America in the 1860's and has since spread throughout the continent. The cabbage white butterfly is known to pollinate several species in the United States.
The cabbage white butterfly has a black body with white wings. The upper wings have a black band at the tip and a black spot in the center of each upper wing. Males have one spot on each wing and females have two. The underneath of the wings are yellowish-green. These butterflies have a wingspan of 30 to 50 mm. Caterpillars are green or bluish-green with a light yellow stripe.
- Species Pieris rapae - Cabbage White (Bugguide, Iowa State University Entomology)
- Species Detail: Cabbage White - Pieris rapae (Linnaeus, 1758) (Butterflies and Moths of North America, Big Sky Institute, Montana State University)
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North American Ecology (US and Canada)
- Scott, J. A. 1986. The butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press.
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Description
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Biology
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Comprehensive Description
General Description
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Description
Size: 46-55 mm. A small version of Pieris brassicae.
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Distribution
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Records
61 records. Latest in 2006 (oases)
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Distribution in Egypt
Widespread. AOO = 184 km2. EOO = 243,000 km2. 9 locations
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Global Distribution
Widespread (Palaearctic; introduced worldwide)
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National Distribution
Canada
Origin: Exotic
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
United States
Origin: Exotic
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Introduced into North America south of the Arctic. Rare in southern Florida and in southern Gulf states. Also occurs in Africa, Eurasia, and Japan.
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Range
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Ecology
Habitat
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Always associated with cultivation.
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Comments: Mostly disturbed open areas but also invading natural situations. In wooded areas mostly in spring before the canopy closes but seems to be becoming more forest adapted as garlic mustard increases explosiovely in the East.
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Migration
Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
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Trophic Strategy
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Host-plants: Cultivated brassicas (Cruciferae), especially cabbages; nasturtiums (Tropaeoleum majus) in gardens; wild crucifers and Reseda lutea (Resedaceae).
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Associations
Flowering Plants Visited by Pieris rapae in Illinois
(observations are from Robertson, Graenicher, Wiggam & Ferguson, Betz et al., Hilty, Lewis, Catling, Larson & Barrett, Conger, and Willson & Bertin; this butterfly is the Cabbage White)
Acanthaceae: Justicia americana sn (Rb, Cng); Apiaceae: Sium suave sn (Rb); Asclepiadaceae: Asclepias incarnata [plpr sn] [plup sn] (Rb, Btz), Asclepias verticillata [plab sn] [plup sn fq] (Rb, WB); Asteraceae: Anthemis cotula sn (Gr), Arctium lappa sn (Gr), Arctium minus sn (Rb), Aster anomalus sn (Rb), Aster drummondii sn (Gr), Aster ericoides sn (Rb), Aster furcatus sn (Gr), Aster laevis sn (Gr), Aster lanceolatus sn (Rb, Gr), Aster lateriflorus sn (Gr), Aster novae-angliae sn (Gr), Aster pilosus sn (Rb, H), Aster prenanthoides sn (Gr), Aster puniceus sn (Gr), Bidens aristosa sn (Rb), Bidens bipinnata sn (Rb), Boltonia asterioides sn (Rb), Cirsium altissimum sn (Gr), Cirsium arvense sn (Gr), Coreopsis palmata sn (Rb), Echinacea purpurea sn (Rb), Eupatoriadelphus purpureus sn (Rb, Gr), Eupatorium perfoliatum sn (Gr), Eupatorium serotinum sn (Rb), Euthamia graminifolia sn (Gr), Helenium autumnale sn (Gr), Helianthus annuus sn (Rb), Helianthus giganteus sn (Gr), Helianthus strumosus sn (Gr), Leucanthemum vulgare sn (Lw), Liatris aspera sn (H), Liatris pycnostachya sn (Rb), Liatris spicata sn (Gr), Oligoneuron rigidum sn (H), Rudbeckia hirta sn (Rb), Silphium integrifolium sn (H), Silphium perfoliatum sn (Rb), Vernonia fasciculata sn (Rb); Boraginaceae: Buglossoides arvense sn (H), Lithospermum canescens sn (Rb); Brassicaceae: Barbarea vulgaris sn (H, Lw), Cardamine bulbosa sn (Rb); Campanulaceae: Lobelia spicata sn (Rb), Triodanis perfoliata sn (Rb, Lw); Caryophyllaceae: Stellaria media sn (Lw); Fabaceae: Crotalaria sagittalis sn np (Rb), Lotus corniculatus sn np (Lw), Trifolium pratense sn (Rb, Lw), Trifolium repens sn (Rb, Lw); Fumariaceae: Dicentra cucullata sn np (Rb); Lamiaceae: Agastache nepetoides sn (Rb), Blephilia ciliata sn (Rb), Blephilia hirsuta sn (Rb), Glechoma hederacea sn np (Rb), Mentha arvensis sn (Rb), Nepeta cataria sn (Rb), Prunella vulgaris sn (Rb, Lw), Pycnanthemum pilosum sn (H), Pycnanthemum tenuifolium sn (Rb), Scutellaria incana sn np (H), Teucrium canadense sn (Cng); Liliaceae: Allium cernuum sn (Gr), Erythronium albidum sn (Rb), Nothoscordum bivalve sn (Rb), Smilacina stellata sn (Gr), Tofieldia glutinosa sn (Gr); Lythraceae: Lythrum alatum sn (Rb); Malvaceae: Abutilon theophrastii sn (Rb), Hibiscus trionum sn (Rb), Malva neglecta sn (Rb), Sida spinosa sn fq (Rb); Melastomataceae: Rhexia virginica exp np (LBt); Orchidaceae: Spiranthes lacera sn np (Ct); Oxalidaceae: Oxalis corniculata sn (Rb), Oxalis stricta sn (Rb, Lw); Papaveraceae: Sanguinaria canadensis exp (Gr); Parnassiaceae: Parnassia glauca sn (Gr); Polemoniaceae: Phlox divaricata laphamii sn (WF); Polygonaceae: Fallopia scandens sn (Rb), Persicaria pensylvanica sn (Rb); Portulacaceae: Claytonia virginica sn (Rb); Rosaceae: Fragaria virginiana sn (Rb), Potentilla argentea sn (Lw), Potentilla recta sn (Lw); Rubiaceae: Cephalanthus occidentalis sn (Rb), Houstonia lanceolata sn (Rb); Scrophulariaceae: Agalinis tenuifolia sn np (Rb), Dasistoma macrophylla sn np (Rb), Linaria vulgaris sn np (Rb), Veronicastrum virginicum sn (Rb); Verbenaceae: Verbena stricta sn fq (Rb, H), Verbena urticifolia sn (Rb); Violaceae: Viola cucullata sn (Rb), Viola pedata sn (Rb)
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Hilty, J. Editor. 2013. Insect Visitors of Illinois Wildflowers. World Wide Web electronic publication. illinoiswildflowers.info, version (05/2013)
See: Abbreviations for Insect Activities, Abbreviations for Scientific Observers, References for behavioral observations
© John Hilty
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larva of Compsilura concinnata is endoparasitoid of larva of Pieris rapae
Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Epicampocera succincta is endoparasitoid of larva of Pieris rapae
Animal / parasitoid / endoparasitoid
larva of Phryxe vulgaris is endoparasitoid of larva of Pieris rapae
Foodplant / internal feeder
caterpillar of Pieris rapae feeds within live heart of Brassica oleracea var. capitata
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Population Biology
Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300
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Life History and Behavior
Behavior
- Scott, J. A. 1986. The butterflies of North America. Stanford University Press.
© Leslie Ries
Partner Web Site:
North American Butterfly Knowledge Network
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Cyclicity
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Life Cycle
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The Flight Period
March-October
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Two or more generations per year.
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These butterflies are one of the first to be seen in the spring and one of the last to be seen in the fall. These butterflies can fly from February to mid-November; they have a shorter season in their northern range and a longer season in the south. Females produce between 300 and 400 eggs; each is laid singly on the underside of host plants. Caterpillars hatch and feed on plants from the cabbage family (Brassicaceae). They then molt five times before turning into a chrysalis. Chrysalids hibernate and hatch into adult butterflies. Adults live about three weeks. Cabbage white butterflies have between two and eight generations per year.
- Species Pieris rapae - Cabbage White (Bugguide, Iowa State University Entomology)
- Species Detail: Cabbage White - Pieris rapae (Linnaeus, 1758) (Butterflies and Moths of North America, Big Sky Institute, Montana State University)
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Evolution and Systematics
Functional Adaptations
Functional adaptation
The wings of the cabbage butterfly are white due to longitudinal ridges and cross-ribs studded with ovoid beads.
"The small white, Pieris rapae, offers an interesting example of the biology of wing coloration. Both sexes of this butterfly species are rather featureless for human eyes, except for slight differences in the black spots, small wing areas where the wing scales contain melanin. The white color is caused by strongly scattering structures in the wing scales (Stavenga et al., 2004). The reflectance is only high above 450 nm, but it is minor below 400 nm, because the scales of male P. rapae crucivora contain a substantial amount of UV-absorbing pteridins." (Stavenga and Arikawa 2006:314)
"Fig. 7. Coloration of pierid butterflies...(b) The wing scales are marked by longitudinal ridges and cross-ribs. (c) The cross-ribs are studded with ovoid beads...(d) The wing scales strongly scatter, but due to pteridin pigment, which strongly absorbs in the UV, the reflectance is low in the UV." (Stavenga and Arikawa 2006:315)
Learn more about this functional adaptation.
- Stavenga, D.G.; Arikawa, K. 2006. Evolution of color and vision of butterflies. Review. Arthropod Structure & Development. 35: 307-318.
© The Biomimicry Institute
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Pieris rapae
There are 115 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank. Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species. See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
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Download FASTA File
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Statistics of barcoding coverage: Pieris rapae
Public Records: 115
Specimens with Barcodes: 286
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Conservation
Conservation Status
Status in Egypt
Resident and migrant
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
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Threats
Degree of Threat: D : Unthreatened throughout its range, communities may be threatened in minor portions of the range or degree of variation falls within natural variation
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Management
Global Protection: Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed
Needs: None, widespread common economic pest.
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Pollinator
Recent research has shown that it is actually four times more efficient at pollinating wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) than honey bees (Apis mellifera) because honey bees are foraging for both pollen and nectar and most likely groom away pollen from their bodies. In addition to wild radish, cabbage white butterflies are pollinators of red clover (Trifolium pratense), common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), buttonbush (Cephalanthus spp.), bird's-foot violet (Viola pedata), and wild strawberry (Rosaceae).
In addition to being pollinators, this species can be considered a pest because the larvae feed on the foliage of crop plants like broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard, horseradish, kale, and kohlrabi. Larvae of this species have the ability to reduce mature plants to stems and large veins by eating foliage. Larvae have also been known to burrow into the heads of broccoli and cabbage; they are difficult to dislodge and produce large amounts of fecal material.
- The Effect of Wild Radish Floral Morphology on Pollination Efficiency by Four Taxa of Pollinators, J. K. Conner, R. Davis, and S. Rush, Oecologia, Vol. 104, No. 2 (1995), pp. 234-245
- Cabbage White (Pieris rapae) (Fairfax County Public Schools); Featured Creatures: Imported Cabbageworm, John L. Capinera, University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Science
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Risks
Wikipedia
Pieris rapae
The Small White (Pieris rapae) is a small- to medium-sized butterfly species of the Yellows-and-Whites family Pieridae. It is also known as the Small Cabbage White and in New Zealand, simply as White Butterfly.[1] The names "Cabbage Butterfly" and "Cabbage White" can also refer to the Large White.
It is widespread and populations are found across Europe, North Africa, Asia, and Great Britain. It has also been accidentally introduced to North America, Australia and New Zealand where it causes damage to cultivated cabbages and other mustard family crops. The caterpillar stage alone is responsible for crop damage because of which it is referred to as the Imported Cabbageworm.
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Description
In appearance it looks like a smaller version of the Large White (Pieris brassicae). The upperside is creamy white with black tips to the forewings. Females also have two black spots in the center of the forewings. Its underwings are yellowish with black speckles. It is sometimes mistaken for a moth due to its plain-looking appearance. The wingspan of adults is roughly 32–47 mm (1.25–2 in).[2]
Distribution
The species has a natural range across Europe, Asia and North Africa. It spread across the Atlantic into Canada and the United States beginning somewhere around 1860.[3] It spread to Hawaii by 1898, and Australia in 1929 around Melbourne and spreading across to Perth by 1943.
The nominate subspecies P. r. rapae is found in Europe while the Asian populations are placed in the subspecies P. r. crucivora. Other subspecies include atomaria, eumorpha, leucosoma, mauretanica, napi, novangliae, and orientalis.
Life cycle
In Britain, it has two flight periods, April–May and July–August, but is continuously-brooded in North America, being one of the first butterflies to emerge from the chrysalis in spring, flying until hard freeze in the fall.
Its caterpillars can be a pest on cultivated cabbages, kale, radish, broccoli, and horseradish but it will readily lay eggs on wild members of the cabbage family such as Charlock (Sinapis arvensis) and Hedge mustard (Sisybrium officinale). The eggs are laid singularly on foodplant leaves. It has been suggested that isothiocyanate compounds in the family Brassicaceae may have been evolved to reduce herbivory by caterpillars of the Small White.[4]
Traditionally known in the United States as the Imported Cabbage Worm, now more commonly the Cabbage White, the caterpillars are green and well camouflaged. Caterpillars rest on the undersides of the leaves, thus making them less visible to predators. Unlike the Large White, they are not distasteful to predators like birds. Like many other "White" butterflies, they hibernate as a pupa. It is also one of the most cold-hardy of the non-hibernating butterflies, occasionally seen emerging during mid-winter mild spells in cities as far north as Washington D.C.
Like its close relative the Large White this is a strong flyer and the British population is increased by continental immigrants in most years. Adults are diurnal and fly throughout the day, except for early morning and evening. Although there is occasional activity during the later part of the night, it ceases as dawn breaks.[5]
Egg
Caterpillar
Pupa
Copulating pair
Caterpillar with excreta
References
- ^ RR Scott & RM Emberson (compilers) (1999). Handbook of New Zealand Insect Names. Entomological Society of New Zealand. ISBN 0-9597663-5-9. http://www.ento.org.nz/Handbook_Insect_Names/Handbook_insect_names.php.
- ^ http://www.cbif.gc.ca/spp_pages/butterflies/species/CabbageWhite_e.php
- ^ Scudder, SH (1887). "The introduction and spread of Pieris rapae in North America, 1860-1886". Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History 4 (3): 53–69. http://www.archive.org/stream/cihm_14771#page/n4/mode/1up.
- ^ Agrawal, AA & NS Kurashige (2003). "A Role for Isothiocyanates in Plant Resistance Against the Specialist Herbivore Pieris rapae". Journal of Chemical Ecology 29 (6): 1403–1415. doi:10.1023/A:1024265420375.
- ^ Fullard, James H. & Napoleone, Nadia (2001): Diel flight periodicity and the evolution of auditory defences in the Macrolepidoptera. Animal Behaviour 62(2): 349–368. doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1753 PDF fulltext
Further reading
- Asher, Jim et al.: The Millennium Atlas of Britain and Ireland. Oxford University Press.
- Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies (2nd Ed.). Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India.
- "Pieris rapae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=188541. Retrieved 6 February 2006.
Source:
Wikipedia
Unreviewed
Names and Taxonomy
Taxonomy
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