Dorsal coloration is buff, pale brown, sometimes reddish-brown or olive green, with round dark brown spots often outlined by light narrow borders. Dorsolateral folds are usually interrupted posteriorly and displaced medially. Usually there is a complete pale supralabial stripe and a dark snout spot present. There is nearly always a white spot in the center of the tympanum. The posterior surface of the thigh has dark brown mottling or reticulations. The ventral surface is cream colored with some yellow on the groin and proximal portion of the thigh.

This species can be found in the United States in the southern edge of South Dakota to central Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), west to eastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and central New Mexico (Degenhardt et al. 1996), east in the Prairie Peninsula to Indiana, south along the Mississippi River to southeastern Missouri (Johnson 1987). Disjunctive populations occur in southeastern Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabauch 1989), and an apparently introduced population at Ashurst Lake, Coconino County, north-central Arizona (not mapped here) (Brown 1992). It occurs to elevations of around 1,800m asl in Arizona and Colorado, 1,000-2,250m asl in New Mexico (Degenhardt et al. 1996). Stebbins (1985) reported the elevational range as 110-2,590m asl.

The plains leopard frog enjoys arid regions of the plains and prairies. It can be found along streams and ponds in western Indiana to southeast South Dakota and eastern Colorado. It can also be found south to central Texas and isolated colonies in southeast Illinois, New Mexico, and southeastern Arizona (Conant 1991).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

endemic to a single nation

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (200,000-2,500,000 square km (about 80,000-1,000,000 square miles)) Southern edge of South Dakota to central Texas (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999), west to eastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and central New Mexico (Degenhardt et al. 1996), east in the Prairie Peninsula to Indiana, south along the Mississippi River to southeastern Missouri (Johnson 1987). Disjunct populations in southeastern Arizona (Clarkson and Rorabauch 1989), and an apparently introduced population at Ashurst Lake, Coconino County, north-central Arizona (Brown 1992). To elevations of around 1800 m in Arizona and Colorado, 1000-2250 m in New Mexico (Degenhardt et al. 1996). Stebbins (1985) reported the elevational range as 110-2590 m. Rana blairi hybridizes with Rana pipiens in eastern Colorado (Hammerson 1999) and Nebraska and with Rana sphenocephala along the Missouri River floodplain in Missouri (Parris 1999).

Found primarily in the Great Plains and Prairie Peninsula, ranging from southeast South Dakota to central Texas, and from southwestern Arizona to central Indiana. Original habitat for Rana blairi was probably prairie grassland, but it is now commonly found in areas of human disturbance.

The plains leopard frog is stocky and usually brown in color. It has a distinct light line along the upper jaw and a dark spot on the snout. The tympanum is equal or slightly larger than the eye, often with a light spot in the center. Dorsolateral folds are inset medially and interrupted just anterior to the groin. The groin and ventral surface of the thighs are considerably yellow in color. The area around the cloaca is covered with tubercles. Size: 2 - 3 3/4 inches (BISON-M 1997, Conant 1991).

Length: 11 cm

This taxon is one of a number of demersal species in the Arkansas River system. Demersal river fish are found at the river bottom, feeding on benthos and zooplankton. The Arkansas River rises near Leadville, Colorado at an elevation of approximately 3010 meters about thirty kilometers north of Mount Elbert, Colorado's highest peak.

Tthe upper reaches of the Arkansas River manifest turbulent high gradient passage through rugged volcanic terrain; the flow continues to the Royal Gorge, where one of the world's highest suspension bridges towers 320 meters above the river surface; thereafter, the river course flows generally eastward through Kansas, thence southeastward through Oklahoma and Arkansas until its discharge to the Mississippi River. The river basin also includes parts of the states of New Mexico, Texas and Missouri.

Chief tributaries of the Arkansas River are Purgatoire River, Fountain Creek, Pawnee River, Salt Fork River, Illinois River,Verdigris River, Neosho River, Cimarron River and the Canadian River. The mean annual discharge at Little Rock, Arkansas is approximately 1118 cubic meters per second, a level remarkably undifferentiated from virgin flow, before the era of locks, impoundments and extraction.

Water quality at the headwaters near Leadville, Colorado is quite high, consisting of cold, rapidly flowing water of pH 6.3. Concentrations of calcium, sodium, magnesium and chloride are all less than ten milligrams per liter in this pristine headwaters area.

Crossing the Southern Plains below Great Bend, Kansas, the pH elevates to a level of 8.0, sodium concentrations rise to a range of 300 to 500 mg/l, with other ions rising by similar large percentages. After receiving the more pristine runoff from the Ozark Plateau, below Fort Smith, Arkansas, the pH level can be measured as low as 7.5, and sodium along with other ion concentrations are reduced by a factor of four. At the Mississippi Embayment, nitrate and phosphate levels are elevated due to row crop agricultural runoff of this region.

A number of crayfishes are found in the Arkansas River, including Orconectes palmeri, O. nais, O. virilis, Procambarus acutus and P. simulans.

In the downstream reaches of the Mississippi Embayment a number of commercially important native freshwater mussels occur, including the threeridge mussel (Amblema plicata) and mapleleaf mussel (Quadrula quadrula). Other common freshwater mussels found in the Arkansas River and its tributaries are the pink papershell (Potamilus ohiensis), bleufer (P. purpuratus), fawnsfoot (Truncilla donaciformis), fragile papershell (Leptodea fragilis), pondhorn mussel (Uniomerus tetralasmus) and fluted shell mussel (Lasmigona costata).

There are 141 species of fish present in the Arkansas basin, including two near endemics: slough darter (Etheostoma gracile) and speckled darter (Etheostoma stigmae). The federally threatened and near-endemic Neosho madtom (Noturus placidus) occurs in the Neosho River, a tributary that rises in the Flint Hills. Also present in the Neosho River is the endangered Topeka shiner (Notropis topeka). The cardinal shiner (Luxilus cardinalis) is a near-endemic that is now restricted to populations in the Arkansas River and Red River, and disjunctive populations in the Neosho River.

In the upper Arkansas River mainstem is found the plains leopard frog (Rana blairi); also occurring in the upper basin are a number of reptiles, including yellow mud turtle (Kinosternon flavescens), midland smooth softshell (Apalone mutica), western spiny softshell turtle (Apalone spinifera hartwegi) and northern water snake (Nerodia sipedon). In the downriver portions of the basin (Eastern Oklahoma and Arkansas) are found the false map turtle (Graptemys pseudogeographica) and the venomous cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus).

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater

The plains leopard frog basks on vegetation mats at the edge of shallow streams and ponds. The frogs occur clumped in small groups during breeding season and during the fall, but may be widely dispersed when actively foraging. Lithobates blairi is active at warmer temperatures and has a critical thermal maximum body temperature of 37°C (BISON-M 1997).

Comments: Usually in the vicinity of streams, ponds, creek pools, reservoirs, irrigation ditches, and marshes in areas of prairie and desert grassland, farmland, and prairie canyons; Stebbins (1985) mentioned also oak and oak-pine woodland as habitat. Generally in or near water, but may range into surrounding terrestrial habitat in wet weather. When disturbed, often seeks refuge in vegetation surrounding bodies of water. Burrows into mud and leaves of pond and stream bottoms in winter. Has been found in caves in Oklahoma. See Brown (1992) for further details for various states. Eggs and larvae develop in temporary or permanent pools, ponds, flooded areas, sloughs, and marshes; commonly in muddy water. Males frequently call while floating at the water surface (Brown 1992).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Migrations depend in part on the permanence of the aquatic breeding site.


In Colorado, Gillis (1975) found that from one year to the next, some R. blairi moved up to 8 km between ponds, and one blairi-pipiens hybrid reportedly moved 14 km. Most other "long-distance" movements were 3 km from one year to the next, and presumably maximum movements in general were much less (not reported).

The plains leopard frog feeds on a variety of insects. They mostly use the sit and wait strategy. Once prey items have been sighted, they will stalk and seize them. The plains leopard frog will also actively forage either terrestrially or at the waters edge. They often forage away from water at night after a summer rain (BISON-M 1997).

Comments: Metamorphosed frogs generally eat various invertebrates associated with the ground surface. Larvae eat suspended matter, organic debris, algae, minute organisms, and plant tissue.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Hundreds of occurrences (Brown 1992). Most state accounts do not distinguish between historical and recent occurrences. Recorded from virtually every county within its range in Texas (Dixon 2000). Documented in every one of several dozen counties in Kansas (Collins 1993). Recorded in nearly every county (about 47) within the range in Missouri (Johnson 1987). Lynch (1978) mapped well over 100 collection sites in Nebraska. Recently recorded from about 25 counties in Illinois; 17 additional counties have pre-1980 records; widespread but not abundant in peripheral prairie remnants and south along the Mississippi River bottomlands (Phillips et al. 1999). Hammerson (1999) mapped approximately 100 collection/observation sites in Colorado. Degenhardt et al. (1996) recorded 100+ locations in New Mexico.

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: "Locally common" and "commonly seen" in suitable habitat in northcentral Texas and the Texas Panhandle (Bartlett and Bartlett 1999, Dixon 2000). Common throughout Kansas, found in every aquatic situation (Collins 1993). Widespread and locally common throughout historical range in Colorado (Hammerson 1999).

Known predators include burrowing owl, Mississippi kite, and various snakes (Brown 1992).

Comments: Generally inactive during cold weather from late fall to early spring, but winter aquatic activity has been reported.

Breeding takes places anywhere from February-October. Most move from overwintering sites to breeding sites in the spring. Males engage in sexual displays on the ground. Breeding rates, although variable, seem to peak following rains. Eggs are deposited in still, temporary or permanent shallow ponds or pools. The eggs are light gray in color. In Oklahoma, most clutches found contained 4000-6500 eggs, but some with fewer than 200. Hatching occurs in 5 to 20 days and larvae transform about three months after eggs are deposited. When clutches are lain in late summer or early fall, larvae may overwinter and wait until the following spring to metamorphose. Tadpoles are tan and nondescript without distinct color patterns (BISON-M 1997).

Lays clutch of up to a few thousand eggs in spring, summer, or early fall, often after heavy rains. Larvae from early clutches metamorphose in summer, those from late clutches may overwinter and metamorphose the following spring.

Named an animal of special concern in Indiana

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Widespread in the Great Plains and Prairie Peninsula; hundreds of occurrences; locally abundant; local declines and extirpations have occurred, particularly along the range periphery, due to habitat alteration, impacts of exotic species, and perhaps climate variation; secure in range core.

Population

Population Trend

Global Short Term Trend: Decline of 10-30%

Comments: Declines or extirpations of local populations have been noted in Iowa (Christiansen and Bailey 1991), Illinois (Phillips et al. 1999), Indiana (Brodman et al. 2002), Arizona (Frost and Bagnara 1977, Frost 1983, Clarkson and Rorabaugh 1989), Colorado (Hammerson 1982, 1999), and Texas (Platz 1981); see also Hayes and Jennings (1986). However, these declines have been noted primarily around the margins of the range; the species apparently remains common and relatively stable in the range core.

Global Long Term Trend: Decline of 50-70%

R. blairi has been observed to use a wide variety of sites for breeding, including roadside and drainage ditches, marshes, rain pools, farm ponds, livestock tanks, streams, rivers and irrigation sloughs. Males frequently call from a floating position at the surface of the water. Breeding occurs some time between February and October, depending on local conditions. Eggs laid in late summer or fall may overwinter and transform the next spring. This frog has been observed to seek shelter in vegetation when disturbed, rather than in the water. Their tadpoles are preyed upon more readily than bullfrog tadpoles by several fish species. Adults are preyed upon by several species of snakes.

Major Threats

Degree of Threat: C : Not very threatened throughout its range, communities often provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure over the short-term, or communities are self-protecting because they are unsuitable for other uses

Comments: Suggested causes of declines or extirpations of local populations include water pollution; groundwater pumping; introduction of exotic fishes and amphibians; agricultural development; increased aridity/drought; habitat loss or alteration; toxicants; competition with Rana berlandieri; and predation by, competition with, and/or larval inhibition by bullfrogs (see Brown 1992 and Hammerson 1999). Plains leopard frog larvae are vulnerable to predation from, and generally do not coexist with, predatory fishes (Parris et al. 2001). In Illinois, most of original habitat has been rendered unsuitable by agriculture (Phillips et al. 1999).

Suggested causes of the decline of some populations include water pollution, predation by introduced game fish, groundwater pumping, introduction of exotic fish and amphibians, agricultural development, increased aridity, habitat loss or alteration, competition with R. berlandieri, and predation, competition and/or larval inhibition by R. catesbeiana.

Conservation Actions

Management Requirements: Introduction of exotic species (e.g., fishes, bullfrogs) should be prohibited. Where already present, exotics should be removed if possible.

Global Protection: Unknown whether any occurrences are appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Many populations are in preserves of various types, but this does not ensure adequate protection from exotic species.

Comments: No subspecies are recognized. Older literature refers to this species as R. pipiens.