This gregarious species lives in breeding herds, consisting of one adult male, one to five adult females and their young (2) (5). All members occupy a position within a social hierarchy (2), headed by the dominant adult stallion, which is responsible for defending the herd (4). Breeding herds inhabit overlapping home ranges, with no evidence of territoriality, and sometimes herds will even join to form larger temporary populations of up to around 30 individuals (2) (4). Surplus males live in bachelor groups, from which individuals periodically attempt to establish a new breeding herd with young females or take over an existing herd by displacing the dominant stallion (2). Nevertheless, breeding herds often remain stable over many years (up to 20 recorded), with mares usually remaining in a herd for life. New stallions may need to go through courtship of up to three years before the mares in a herd will accept their new stud (2) (7). This polygynous species breeds throughout the year, although regional birth peaks exist (2) (4). Females produce a single foal every one to three years, after a gestation of approximately one year (5). While most Cape mountain zebra young leave their maternal herds of their own choice between 13 and 37 months of age, or about three months after the birth of a sibling, Hartmann's mountain zebra mares try to expel their 14 to 16 month old foals from the herd before the birth of a sibling. Young males may wander alone for a while before joining a bachelor group, while females are either taken into another breeding herd or are joined by a bachelor male to form a new breeding herd (2). If young females leave their maternal herd before adulthood they join bachelor herds until they are taken into a herd (2). Both subspecies of mountain zebra are predominately diurnal, and are most active in the early morning and late afternoon to sunset (2) (4). The herbivorous diet primarily consists of grass but also includes leaves and bark, and individuals of all ages also visit mineral licks, particularly during the summer (2) (4). Cape mountain zebra must drink every day, whereas Hartmann's mountain zebra can go two or more days without drinking during the wet season (2).

This evocative icon of Africa is an immediately recognisable member of the horse family, characterised by its striking pattern of black and white stripes, which continue through into its short, erect mane (2). The mountain zebra is discernable from other zebra species by the thin and relatively close-together vertical black lines on its neck and torso, which are narrower and more numerous than those of Burchell's zebra (Equus burchelli), and by the wide, horizontal bands on its haunches, which are broader than both those of Grevy's zebra (Equus grevui) and Burchell's zebra (2) (4). Unlike Burchell's zebra, the mountain zebra also lacks 'shadow stripes', and the stripes do not meet under the belly, which is instead white with a central black stripe (2). The most diagnostic features of this species, however, are the 'grid iron' pattern of narrow stripes across the rump and the square flap of skin, or dewlap, which exists on this zebra's throat (5) (6). Aptly named, the mountain zebra is a good climber on steep, rugged terrain and has evolved exceptionally hard and pointed hooves compared to other equines (2) (4) (7). The Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) is the smallest living zebra, and differs from Hartmann's mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) by its smaller size (5) (8), slightly thicker black stripes (6), and minor striping variations on the rump (5) (8).

Historically, Mountain Zebras occurred from the southern parts of South Africa through Namibia and into extreme south-western Angola (Penzhorn in press). Two subspecies are recognized: Cape Mountain Zebras (E. z. zebra) were widely distributed along mountain ranges forming the southern and western edge of the of the central plateau of the Eastern Cape and Western Cape provinces of South Africa, from the Amatola Mountains in the Cathcart District westward and northward to the Kamiesberg in Namaqualand in the Northern Cape; Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras (E. z. hartmannae) occur in the mountainous transition zone between the Namib Desert and the central plateau in Namibia, with a marginal extension into south-western Angola (Penzhorn 1988, in press). Novellie et al. (2002) postulate that the ranges of the two subspecies were separated by an area devoid of mountainous habitat between the northernmost point of the Cedarberg and Bokkeveldberg ranges, and the southernmost point of the Kamiesberg range.

Today, surviving natural populations of Cape Mountain Zebra occur only in Mountain Zebra National Park, Gamka Mountain Reserve, and the Kamanassie mountains. Populations have been reintroduced to various parts of their former range, including Karoo National Park, De Hoop Nature Reserve, Karoo Nature Reserve (recently proclaimed as the Camdeboo National Park), Commando Drift Nature Reserve, Baviaanskloof Wilderness Area, Tsolwana Nature Reserve. and Gariep Dam Nature Reserve (Lloyd 2002; Novellie et al. 2002).

In Namibia, the establishment of artificial waterpoints have allowed Hartmann’s Mountain Zebra to occupy previously unsuitable habitat, such that their present range differs from that in historical times. Joubert (1973) gave their range as discontinuously distributed in four populations: from Kunene Province southwards to the Ugab River and east to the Outjo District; the Erongo Mountains; on the escarpment from the Swakop River southwards to the Naukluft Mountains and eastward along the Kuiseb and Gaub drainages into the Khomas Hochland; and the Fish River Canyon and Huns Mountains near the Orange River in the south. Hartmann's Mountain Zebra are also established in three conservation areas in the Northern Cape, South Africa: Richtersveld and Augrabies National Parks and Goegap Provincial Nature Reserve. Hartmann’s Mountain zebra may still survive in Angola, in Iona National Park(Crawford-Cabral and Verissimo 2005). Hartmann’s Mountain Zebras have also been introduced outside of their range in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape (Novellie et al. 2002).

There are two distinct subspecies of mountain zebras (Equus zebra): Cape mountain zebras, E. z. zebra, and Hartmann's mountain zebras, E. z. hartmannae. Cape mountain zebras are found only in South Africa. Natural populations are found in the Mountain Zebra National Park (MZNP), Gamka Mountain Reserve, and in the Kamanassie Mountains. Populations of Cape mountain zebras have also been established in Karoo National Park, Karoo Nature Reserve, Commando Drift Nature Reserve, De Hoop Nature Reserve, and Tsolwana Game Ranch. Hartmann’s mountain zebras range from South West Africa into extreme southwest Angola. Their distribution is highly discontinuous.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

Cape mountain zebras are endemic to South Africa (2), while Hartmann's mountain zebras have a fragmented distribution across Namibia, Angola and South Africa (9).

Equus zebra is a fairly large-sized, striped member of the horse family. Adult mountain zebras have a head and body length of 210 to 260 cm, and a tail length of 40 to 55 cm. Shoulder height ranges from 116 to 150 cm. Mountain zebras typically weigh between 240 and 372 kg. Adult Cape mountain zebra mares average 234 kg and stallions usually weigh 250 to 260 kg. Adult Hartmann's mountain zebrasare slightly larger, with mares averaging 276 kg, and stallions averaging 298 kg. Stallions 7 years and older have a mean weight of 343 kg, and a mean shoulder height of 144.5 cm.

The ground color on the body is white, with black to deep brown stripes which continue through the short, erect mane. The stripes on the head and body are narrow and more numerous than those on the rump, and the legs are striped to the hooves. The posterior portion of the dorsal stripe forms a distinctive “gridiron” pattern that continues onto the tail and extends to the whisk near the tip. The muzzle is black.

Both subspecies of E. zebra are good climbers and have exceptionally hard and pointed hooves compared to other equines. The most distinguishing characteristic is the presence of a dewlap, or fold of skin, hanging from the throat.

The color pattern of E. zebra is intermediate between Burchell’s zebra and Grevy’s zebra. Equus zebra can be distinguished from E. burchelli by having a dewlap; narrower and more numerous stripes on the head and body; broader stripes on the hindquarters with no “shadow” stripes; a “gridiron” pattern on the rump; white under-parts with a mid-ventral black stripe on the chest and belly; and ears that are more than 200 mm long.

Cape mountain zebras are slightly smaller than Hartmann’s mountain zebras. The upper 2 to 3 dark stripes on the rump are very broad, whereas they are less so in Hartmann’s mountain zebras, where some of the white stripes may be more broad than the dark stripes.

Range mass: 240 to 372 kg.

Range length: 210 to 260 cm.

Average length: 220 cm.

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Mountain zebras inhabit slopes and plateaus in mountainous areas of South Africa and Namibia (South West Africa). Cape mountain zebras may occur up to 2,000 meters above sea level, but move to lower elevations in the winter. The habitat in South Africa provides regular precipitation and a fairly constant food-supply year round. Hartmann’s mountain zebras differ from Cape mountain zebras in that they occupy an arid region in a mountainous transition zone on the edge of the Namib Desert. Surface water is patchy in this area and as a result, E. z. hartmannae must wander between the mountains and sand flats in order to find patches of grass.

Range elevation: 2,000 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; mountains

Found on mountainous slopes and plateaus. Cape mountain zebras occur up to 2,000 metres above sea level, but move to lower elevations in the winter. Hartmann's mountain zebras occupy a more arid region on the edge of the Namib Desert, where surface water is patchy and herds must wander between the mountains and sand flats in order to find patches of grass (2).

Both subspecies of mountain zebra are herbivorous. The primary diet consists of grass but also includes browse. In MZNP, E. z. zebra directs its selection at greener plant species with a high leaf:stalk ratio. Even so, they are still coarse grazers and will exploit both stem and leaf parts of chosen grasses. Grobler (1983) found that they feed on only 26% of the available plants, and only 7 of 17 grass species present at feeding sites. The primary grass eaten is Themeda triandra. Other grasses consumed include: Cymbopogon plurinodis, Heteropogon contortus, Setaria neglecta, and Enneapogon scoparius. Cape mountain zebras of all ages also frequent mineral licks, especially during the summer.

Plant Foods: leaves; wood, bark, or stems; seeds, grains, and nuts

Primary Diet: herbivore (Folivore )

In addition to serving as prey for certain mammalian carnivores, mountain zebras also serve as hosts for a variety of tick, bot-fly, nematode, and cestode species. They also associate with several species of birds that presumably remove external parasites from them. As grazers, mountain zebras may also aid in seed dispersal, and the creation of habitat for smaller animals including mesopredators.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds; creates habitat

Mutualist Species:

• palewinged starling Onychognathus nabouroup 
• redwinged starling Onychognathus morio 
• forktailed drongo Dicrurus adsimilis 

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• bot flies Gasterophilus sp.
• ixodid ticks Rhipicephalus sp.
• nematodes Cyathostomum sp.

The dominant stallion alerts other herd members to danger with a high-pitched alarm call or snort. He then takes up a defensive position to the rear of the herd while a mare, usually the one with the youngest foal, leads the rest of the herd away. Flight is the most common response to threat, and is sometimes accompanied by a defensive kick. Pulling the ears flat back against the head, lashing the tail, and lowering the head with the neck outstretched and teeth bared, is the form taken for threat behavior. Although fighting is rarely seen, it consists of biting at the opponent's head, neck, legs, and hindquarters. Mountain zebras act in response to the flight and or alarm signals of black wildebeest (Connochaetes gnou). However, they rarely respond to similar signals of smaller antelope species.

Especially at high temperatures, the striped pattern of E. zebra may serve as camouflage, as an adaptation to to the resultant "waviness" of the air (Klingel, 1990). At a distance of a few hundred yards, the stripes make a mountain zebra appear indistinct. To some degree, stripes may also provide protection against blood-sucking insects that transmit disease such as bot-flies and ticks.

Known Predators:

• lions (Panthera leo)
• leopards (Panthera pardus)
• cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)
• spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta)
• hunting dogs (Lycaon pictus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Mountain zebras communicate using mainly visual and auditory cues. Because no two individuals have identical stripe patterns, body pattern can be used for individual indentification. At close range, individuals can also be recognized by smell.

Among all members of the horse family, the positioning of the ears, the stretching of the corners of the mouth, the exposure of the teeth, the opening of the mouth, and the positioning of the head and tail serve as signals of an individuals’ mood or intentions. Ears laid flat back against the head signal threat, especially when accompanied by a lowered head and open mouth. During greeting rituals, mountain zebras touch noses and communicate rank by the positioning of the ears. As a gesture of inferiority, younger individuals hold their ears to the side and make chewing motions with exposed incisors when greeting adults.

Mountain zebras make a variety of vocalizations. Stallions make a high-pitched alarm call or snort to alert herd members to danger. Bachelor stallions make a drawn-out squeal when confronted by a herd stallion. In order to express contentment when feeding, mountain zebras make a soft sound caused by forcing air between closed lips.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

The life span of mountain zebras in the wild is usually 20 or more years. The oldest documented mountain zebra in captivity is an E. z. hartmannae that was 29 years and 6 months.

Range lifespan

Status: captivity: 29.5 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 20 years.

Typical lifespan

Status: captivity: 30 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Sex: female

Status: wild: 24.0 years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 20.0 years.

Maximum longevity: 33.2 years (captivity) Observations: One captive specimen lived for 33.2 years (Richard Weigl 2005).

Mountain zebras have a polygynous mating system. They form small breeding herds that consist of one adult stallion and 1 to 5 mares with young. Breeding herds remain stable over many years and mares usually remain in a herd for life.

The mating system of E. zebra results in a surplus of stallions. These stallions join bachelor groups which form “the reservoir from which herd stallions are recruited.” (Penzhorn 1988)  New breeding bands may be formed when a bachelor stallion obtains a young mare from a maternal herd, or an older mare from a fragmented herd, although the latter is not as common.

If a dominant stallion is successfully driven away from his herd by a challenging stallion, the herd is taken over as a unit by the newcomer. Serious fighting, including kicking and biting, may occur when another stallion attempts to take over a herd.

Herd stallions approach each other and perform a challenge ritual when two breeding herds come into contact. The challenge ritual consists of nasonasal and nasogential contact, and body rubbing. Both stallions then continue grazing and will eventually move back to their own herds. Sometimes herds will join to form larger temporary populations.

Mating System: polygynous

The breeding season of mountain zebras lasts throughout the year. In E. z. zebra, there is a birth peak from December to February. In E. z. harmannae, births peak from November to April.

The gestation period for both subspecies is approximately one year, and one foal is produced per breeding season. Foals are about 25 kg at birth, and head and body length is about 120 cm. Foals are weaned at around 10 months of age.

The age of sexual maturity in E. zebra differs between males and females. The testes of E. z. hartmannae reach maximum size at approximately 42 months of age. Males are capable of aquiring and holding a herd at 5 to 6 years. Female mountain zebras first produce foals at between 3 and 6 years of age, with the mean age at first foaling being 66.5 months. Females have an inter-birth interval of 1 to 3 years, and may remain reproductively active until about 24 years of age.

Breeding interval: Mountain zebras breed every 1 to 3 years.

Breeding season: Copulation occurs year-round.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Average gestation period: 365 days.

Average weaning age: 10 months.

Range time to independence: 13 to 37 months.

Average time to independence: 22 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 26 to 72 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 66.5 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 42 (low) months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous ; post-partum estrous

Average birth mass: 35000 g.

Average gestation period: 362 days.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Mountain zebra young are born well developed. For the first few weeks, foals remain close to their dams (mothers). The dam prevents interaction between the foal and other herd members by threatening any individual that comes too close.

The duration of lactation varies in E. zebra, and the final weaning time apparently depends upon the approaching birth of a sibling. Mares usually nurse foals in bouts of 90 seconds to 2 minutes. The suckling time typically consists of 3 periods. There is an initial suckling period lasting about 1 minute which is followed by a resting period of a few seconds. The second and final suckling period lasts for 10 to 20 seconds. For the first 3 months of life, foals typically nurse at hourly intervals during the day, after which, suckling frequency decreases. Foals often begin to nibble at grass when they are only a few days old. They are weaned after approximately 10 months of age.

Most E. zebra foals leave their maternal herds in summer. Equus zebra zebra young leave their maternal herds of their own volition. Not only are foals not forced out by the dominant herd stallion, but the stallion may actively try to prevent them from leaving. Foals leave the herd between 13 and 37 months of age, with an average age of 22 months. On average, foals leave their maternal herd 3 months after the birth of a sibling, and as such, the looming birth of a sibling does not appear to be particularly important to the timing of departure. In contrast, Hartmann’s mountain zebra mares try to expel their 14 to 16 month old foals from the herd before the birth of a sibling. After varying intervals, colts and fillies may rejoin their maternal herds for short periods.

The role of males in parental care is not direct. They may play some role in protecting the young of the herd.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Justification

History

• 1996
  Endangered
• 1994
  Vulnerable
  (Groombridge 1994)

The IUCN Red List indicates that the entire species E. zebra is vulnerable (1994). The IUCN, and U.S. federal list both indicate E. z. zebra as endangered. It is also listed as endangered by CITES and is placed on Appendix Equus zebra hartmannae is listed as threatened by the IUCN, U.S. federal list, and is listed on Appendix II by CITES.

The major threats to E. zebra include habitat loss and degradation, invasive alien species, harvesting, persecution, and intrinsic factors such as a restricted range. Mountain Zebra National Park and other reserves were established for the protection of E. Z. zebra. As of 1995, they were estimated at over 700 individuals. During the 1950s, numbers of E. z. hartmannae were estimated at 50,000 to 75,000 individuals. In 1992 they were estimated at only about 8,000.

US Federal List: endangered; threatened

CITES: appendix i; appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: vulnerable

Classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List (1). Subspecies: the Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) is classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List (1), and listed on Appendix I of CITES (3); Hartmann's mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) is classified as Endangered (EN) on the IUCN Red List (1), and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

The primary threats to the mountain zebra include competition with domestic livestock, hunting and persecution, habitat loss due to conversion to agriculture (2), and the risk of the two subspecies breed with each other leading to a loss of genetic diversity (2) (10). Hartmann's mountain zebras live in direct conflict with livestock farmers, with available grazing ground becoming particularly scarce in many parts of Namibia where very little rainfall has occurred for several years. As a result, more and more Hartmann's mountain zebras are being culled, both legally and illegally. Furthermore, due to the region's poor economy and scarce resources, poaching for food has increased rapidly over the last few years, since the zebra offers a relatively large amount of meat. The situation in Angola has been exacerbated by war, in which many soldiers and civilians have been in dire need of meat (9). The Cape mountain zebra formerly inhabited all the mountain ranges of the southern Cape Province of South Africa, but by 1997 less than 750 were believed to survive (5). Reaching a devastating all-time low of just 91 individuals in 1950 (10), this subspecies is considered the largest mammal in South Africa to have come so close to extinction, a fate that sadly awaited the quagga (E. quagga). Although probably never particularly numerous, numbers declined as herds had to compete against sheep and cattle for grazing, and as habitat was increasingly converted into farmland. Hunting was also uncontrolled and this zebra was a popular victim, its hide (skin) allegedly much sought after for the manufacturing of 'grain bags'. Thankfully, the Cape mountain zebra's population eventually climbed back up to approximately 1,200 individuals in 1998 (7).

Conservation Actions

The non-profit organisation Etusis Foundation has been established in Namibia for the conservation of Hartmann's Mountain Zebra. The foundation conducts research on the subspecies, and focuses on educating farmers and raising public and government awareness about the plight this subspecies faces (9). Despite its bleak outlook over the last century, concerted conservation efforts mean that Cape mountain zebra numbers are now increasing. The Mountain Zebra National Park was established in 1937 to help save this subspecies, and there are a further two original sub-populations protected in Kamanassie Nature Reserve and Gamka Mountain Reserve. There are also currently about another 11 formally protected, reintroduced sub-populations, including those in Karoo National Park, Karoo Nature Reserve, Addo Elephant National Park, Commando Drift Nature Reserve, De Hoop Nature Reserve, Cape Point Nature Reserve and Tsolwana Game Ranch (2) (7) (10). Conservation efforts by the private sector have also had an important impact, such as the recent purchase by Bushmans Kloof Wilderness Reserve of another twenty Cape mountain zebras from a private seller, making a total of over 30 animals held at the reserve, probably the largest privately owned herd of Cape mountain zebra in the world (7). Although this subspecies still occupies a precarious existence, the dramatic increase in its population over the last 50 years is considered a great conservation success story, and a testament to the ongoing, collaborative efforts of many individuals and parties committed to saving this African icon (7). The current conservation objective is to build up numbers to a target of 2,500 animals as quickly as possible in order to help ensure the long-term survival of the Cape mountain zebra (10).

Historically, E. z. zebra was hunted for its hide, and because the species competed with livestock for grazing, interfered with agricultural interests, and allegedly broke fences.

Mountain zebras bring in money from ecotourism, and some are still harvested for their skins.

Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; ecotourism