Moles spend most of their lives underground in a system of permanent tunnels (2), the presence of which can be detected from above by molehills, by-products of the excavation process (2). They feed on soil invertebrates that fall into the tunnels (4). A favourite component of the diet is earthworms, which are often stored for later consumption after they have been immobilised by a bite to the head (4). This species of mole is typically solitary, and both sexes defend their territories vigorously (4). Males extend their tunnel systems during the short breeding season as they search for females (4); a single litter per year is the norm, averaging between 2 to 7 naked, blind young. The young are suckled for about a month and leave the nest at around 33 days of age (2), they then disperse above-ground; this period of the mole's life is the most fraught with danger, as they are extremely vulnerable to predators including owls, buzzards, stoats, dogs and cats (2). Female moles are the only mammals known to posses reproductive organs called 'ovotestes', which contain a normal functioning ovary as well as a testicular area that produces a large amount of testosterone. This intriguing feature may explain why female moles are as aggressive as males when defending their territories; it may also account for the external similarities between males and females (4).

The European mole has an elongated, cylindrical body, covered in black, velvety fur (4). Although the eyes are complete, they are tiny, and often hidden by fur (4). There are no external ears and the nose is naked, apart from sensitive whiskers (4). The large, spade-like forepaws are well adapted for digging, with five robust claws and a permanently out-turned position (4). The sexes are very similar in appearance, but males are usually slightly larger (2).

The European mole occurs from Britain and Spain eastwards through much of continental Europe to the rivers Ob and Irtysh in Asian Russia (Corbet 1978, Kryštufek 1999, Wilson and Reeder 2005). In the Mediterranean, it is generally widespread on the European continent, although absent from southern Iberia, southern Italy, the southern Balkans (where it is replaced by other Talpa species). It is found on many islands in the Baltic and around the British coast, but it is not found on Ireland, Iceland, the North Sea islands, and the Mediterranean islands (with the exception of Cres in the northern Adriatic). It is found from sea level to 2,400 m (Kryštufek 1999).

Talpa europaea is found throughout temperate Europe, from Great Britain in the west to the Ob and Irtysh rivers in the east in Russia. They do not occur in southernmost parts of Europe, including Greece, Portugal, and Italy.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native )

Widespread and common throughout Britain but absent from Ireland and most islands, with the exception of Jersey, the Isle of Wight, Anglesey, Mull, Alderney and Skye (3). It is widespread in Europe except for the more southern countries (3).

European moles weigh between 72 and 128 g. They are lean creatures and rarely have more than 3 grams of fat stored in the body. Body lengths range from 113 to 159 mm with tail lengths between 25 and 40 mm.  European moles have long, cylindrical bodies. Their fur is velvety and black in color. They have fully developed eyes that are small and often hidden by fur and no external ears. The nose is bare with the exception of sensory whiskers. They have well-adapted front limbs for digging. The front feet have 5 strong claws and are permanently turned outward. There is only slight sexual dimorphism, with males usually slightly larger.

Range mass: 72 to 128 g.

Range length: 113 to 159 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

European moles are found in habitats with soils deep enough to allow tunneling. These include arable fields, deciduous woodland, and permanent pasture. Unless accidentally exposed to light, European moles spend their entire life underground, a highly variable habitat. Talpa europaea does not do well in sandy soils or newly cultivated land, as these environments are not suitable for burrowing. When T. europaea does burrow in these types of land, the tunnels are usually short-lived surface tunnels. Talpa europaea forms extensive networks of permanent, underground tunnels in more stable soils. This complex network of burrows is found at varying depths in the soil, and can be hundreds of meters long. The deepest tunnels are used most in times of drought and low temperature. Permanent tunnels are used repeatedly for feeding over long periods of time, sometimes for several generations of moles. Within the tunnels, T. europaea constructs one or more spherical nests, each lined with a ball of dry plant matter. These are used for sleeping and raising young.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest

Other Habitat Features: urban ; suburban ; agricultural

Found in many habitats with soil deep enough to allow tunnelling (2), including arable fields, deciduous woodland, and permanent pasture (3). They do not commonly occur in coniferous forests, sand dunes, or moorland, possibly because invertebrate prey is scarce in these habitats (2).

European moles feed on invertebrates. There are three methods used by moles for obtaining food. These include 1) digging in the soil, 2) walking through the burrow system, and 3) searching on the surface of the ground. The relative importance of these methods for a particular mole depends on soil conditions and the experience of the individual mole. Talpa europaea is polyphasic, spending most of its active periods in search of food.

Earthworms are the main constituent of the T. europaea diet in habitats where they constitute a majority of the biomass of the soil fauna. In areas without as many earthworms, insects are the main dietary constituent. Moles eat both larval and adult insects.

Animal Foods: eggs; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; terrestrial worms

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore , Vermivore)

Talpa europaea changes its habitat when it introduces networks of underground burrows. Moles are predators of insects and worms, and prey for certain kinds of birds and larger mammals. European moles are hosts for a number of parasites, including fleas, ticks, and worms.

Ecosystem Impact: creates habitat; soil aeration

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Hystrichopsylla talpae
• Palaeopsylla minor
• Palaeopsylla kohauti
• Ctenophthalmus bisoctodentatus
• Ctenophthalmus nobilis
• Rectofrontia pentacantha
• Labidophorus soricis
• Ixodes hexagonus

Moles are susceptible to predators mainly during the rare moments when they can be found above ground. They are most susceptible when they are young and leave the mother's nest to disperse above ground and find a territory. Predation on moles most commonly occurs during the spring and summer months. The main predators are birds, including owls, buzzards, herons, ravens, and gulls. Dogs and cats are also known to catch moles in the spring and summer. Humans remain the number one threat to moles, however, as they are considered agricultural pests and are actively persecuted.

Known Predators:

• owls Strigiformes 
• gulls Laridae 
• buzzards Butastur 
• herons Ardeidae 
• ravens Corvus 
• humans Homo sapiens 
• dogs Canis lupus familiaris 
• cats Felis silvestris 

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Animal / parasite / endoparasite
Cyclospora caryolytica endoparasitises intestine of Talpa europaea

Animal / parasite / endoparasite
Elleipsisoma talpae endoparasitises red blood cells of Talpa europaea

Animal / dung saprobe
fruitbody of Hebeloma radicosum is saprobic in/on dung or excretions of nest of Talpa europaea
Other: major host/prey

Animal / parasite / ectoparasite / blood sucker
Hystrichopsylla talpae talpae sucks the blood of Talpa europaea
Other: major host/prey

Animal / predator
Talpa europaea is predator of diapausing pupa of Chrysolina graminis

Animal / parasite / endoparasite
Trypanosoma talpae endoparasitises blood plasma of Talpa europaea

Moles use urine to mark their territory. Both males and females have a pair of scent glands beneath the skin. These glands are slightly larger in males, but increase in size in both sexes during the breeding season, indicating that scent is important in finding a mate.

Communication Channels: chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: vibrations

During late summer, a Talpa europaea population was shown to include 45 percent juveniles (moles less than one year in age), 40 percent one to two year olds, and the remainder older moles, with a maximum age of five years. The highest mortality rate occurs at an age of five to six weeks, when the moles leave the mother's nest to disperse above ground and find their own territory. They are extremely vulnerable to larger predators when above ground.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 5 (high) years.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 2 to 3 years.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 2-3 years.

Observations: Little is known about the longevity of these animals. It has been reported that they live up to 6 years (Symonds 1999). Without more detailed studies, however, their maximum longevity must be classified as unknown.

Mating occurs during a short breeding season in the spring (March to May). Talpa europaea is typically a solitary and territorial species; however, during the mating season males extend their burrows as they search for females. For most of the year, males and females look very much alike. During the breeding season, females become easily recognizable. Around mid-February, two small pits appear just behind the clitoris. These expand and come together, forming a transverse slit leading to the vagina, which is inside the abdomen. Internal sex organs in both males and females increase greatly in size during the breeding season.

The behavior of female moles changes little during the breeding season. They remain in the areas inhabited during the winter. Males, who tend to remain in the same area during the winter months, may move considerable distances during the breeding months (up to a half of a mile) in search of mates. They travel through existing tunnel systems, and if no burrows are available they may dig new ones.

Copulation has been observed above ground. It is not known if this is common or if these instances are exceptional. Copulation has also been observed in underground nests, by the use of radioactive markers and subsequent trapping.

Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Talpa europaea has one annual breeding season in the spring from March to May. During this time, nearly all female moles caught in traps are pregnant.

Gestation lasts four weeks in T. europaea. The young are typically born in mid to late April. Generally females give birth to a single litter per year. Each litter has two to seven young, born blind and hairless. The mother nurses her young for about a month. Fur starts to grow at 14 days, and eyes begin to open at 22 days. Talpa europaea young grow rapidly and reach their adult size in about three weeks. The young begin to leave the nest at 33 days, and disperse from their mother's range around five or six weeks after birth. Moles are sexually mature during the breeding season in the spring following birth. Interestingly, female and male T. europaea show little sexual dimorphism for most of the year, but around the time of breeding season the sex organs differentiate.

Breeding interval: European moles breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from March to May.

Range number of offspring: 2 to 7.

Average number of offspring: 3.

Average gestation period: 33 days.

Average weaning age: 4 weeks.

Average time to independence: 35 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); viviparous

Average birth mass: 3.25 g.

Average gestation period: 28 days.

Average number of offspring: 3.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

Sex: male: 182 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

Sex: female: 182 days.

After birth, the young remain in the nest for about 33 days. During this time, the young are fed entirely with the mother's milk. They begin to leave the nest at about 33 days, but remain with the mother for another two or three weeks. During the early days, if her young are disturbed the mother carries them to another nest. The mother remains with her young during her resting periods, but leaves them for two hours or more while searching for food for herself. At five or six weeks after birth, the young disperse above ground to find their individual territories. This is the part of the mole life cycle at which they are most vulnerable to predators.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There are 2 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 2
Species: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1

European moles are common and widespread throughout their range, they are not considered at risk currently.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Common in the UK and not protected (3).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Moles are not protected by law in the UK, and they are considered to be pests by many farmers and horticulturalists (2), although there are doubts as to whether this perception is correct (3). Historically, they have been trapped on a huge scale, and the pelts were used to make garments (4). Today moles are controlled by strychnine poisoning. This poison, available only by license and banned under the Animal (Cruel Poisons) Regulations (1963) except for use against moles (3), causes a slow painful death; it is also dangerous to other wildlife and humans (2).

Conservation Actions

There is no conservation action targeted at this species.

Talpa europaea is widely regarded as an agricultural pest. The burrowing habits and raising of molehills can cause damage to farmland, and heavy mole infestation can lead to serious economic problems for the farmers. Newly cultivated and planted arable fields are habitats where moles can move easily through the surface soil. This can cause damage to the roots of young plants, to the extent that they wilt or die. Mole hills can also cause damage to the blades of mowing machines and grain harvesters later in the year. This can cause expensive delays in the harvest. Many farmers make serious efforts to stop mole populations from occupying their land, using traps or poisons.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

Moles help control some kinds of injurious insects and they may improve fertility of soils by aerating them.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population