Scarlet tanagers breed in eastern North America and winter in northern and western South America, from Panama in the north as far south as Bolivia. The breeding range is from southern Canada as far west as Manitoba and east to the Maritime provinces and south through the western Carolinas, northern Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and much of Arkansas. The breeding range corresponds with the extent of the eastern deciduous forest biome.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Breeding range extends from North Dakota, eastern Saskatchewan (probably), and southern Manitoba eastward across southern Canada and the northern United States to New Brunswick and central Maine, and south to central Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, northern Alabama, northern Georgia, northwestern South Carolina, western North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland (AOU 1998). During the northern winter, the range extends from Panama (rarely) and Colombia south, east of the Andes, through eastern Ecuador and Peru and western Brazil to northwestern Bolivia (Stiles and Skutch 1989, AOU 1998); apparently mainly in upper Amazonia (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Recently recorded in Amazonia of Brazil (Stotz et al. 1992). Scarlet tanagers migrate primarily through the south-central and southeastern United States, Middle America, and the West Indies.

Scarlet tanagers are 16 to 17 cm long with a wingspan of 25 to 29 cm.  They weigh from 23.5 to 33 grams during the breeding season and from 32 to 38 grams during migration. Mature males in breeding season are bright red with black wings and tails, in the winter they resemble females except for their black wings and tail. Females and immature birds are dull, olive green above and straw-yellow below with dark wings and tail.

Females, immature individuals, and males in winter plumage are sometimes confused with female and immature summer tanagers (Piranga rubra) or western tanagers (Piranga ludoviciana), with which they sometimes co-occur. Some details of plumage color help to distinguish these species, as do their distinctive calls. Scarlet tanagers use a hoarse "chip-churr" call, while western tanagers use a soft "pri-tic" call and summer tanagers use a staccato "pit-i-tuck" call.

Range mass: 23.5 to 38 g.

Range length: 16 to 17 cm.

Range wingspan: 25 to 29 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male more colorful

Length: 20 cm

Weight: 29 grams

No other North American bird has the male's color combination (Terres 1980). Female scarlet and summer (P. RUBRA) tanagers are distinguished by the scarlet's yellow-green plumage compared to the summer's orange-yellow. The female scarlet also has a smaller, darker bill (Terres 1980). Where ranges of the summer and scarlet tanagers overlap, positive identification of similar nest and eggs should not be made until a bird is seen (Harrison 1975).

• Terrestrial

Scarlet tanagers are found mainly in mature deciduous forests or mixed deciduous forests with hemlock (Tsuga) and pine (Pinus). They can also be found in younger deciduous forests and sometimes in heavily wooded suburban areas. In the Smoky Mountains they are found from 425 to 1525 meters of elevation, in other mountainous parts of their range they are found at all elevations in suitable habitat. Habitat use in their winter range in South America is poorly known, but they are generally found in mid-elevation evergreen forests, from 100 and 1,300 meters on the eastern slope of the Andes.

Range elevation: 1525 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; rainforest

Other Habitat Features: suburban

Comments: Scarlet tanagers breed in deciduous forest and mature deciduous woodland, including deciduous and mixed swamp and floodplain forests and rich moist upland forests, often where oaks predominate (Bushman and Therres 1988), sometimes in wooded parks, orchards, and large shade trees of suburbs (Isler and Isler 1987, Senesac 1993), less often in mixed deciduous-coniferous forest (Hamel et al. 1982, Hamel 1992). They are most common in areas with a relatively closed canopy, a dense understory with a high diversity of shrubs, and scanty ground cover, and are able to breed successfully in relatively small patches of forest (Bushman and Therres 1988). Breeding occurs in various forest stages but is most frequent in mature woods (according to some sources, prefers pole stands). In New England, nesting occurs mainly in sawtimber hardwoods. Nests are placed in trees (commonly oaks), usually well out on limbs, 2-23 meters above ground. Typical nest site characteristics: 1) the nest is placed in a leaf cluster, or with at least several leaves shading the nest, 2) the nest is placed on a nearly horizontal tree branch, 3) there is a clear unobstructed view of the ground from the nest, and 4) there are flyways from adjacent trees to the nest (Senesac 1993).

During the northern winter, scarlet tanagers inhabit forest canopies and edges, including tall second growth (Isler and Isler 1987). Migrants may occur in more open habitats, such as woodlands, parks, and gardens, as well as forests (Isler and Isler 1987).

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

This species arrives in most of the southern United States in April, in the northern states and southern Canada by early to late May. South-bound migration begins in late August, peaks in September and (in the southern United States) early October.

Migrates through Middle America and in smaller number in West Indies. Rare spring and fall migrant in West Indies (Raffaele 1983). Fairly regular passage migrant in Netherlands Antilles (Ridgely and Tudor 1989). Migration in Costa Rica late September-early November and late March-early May (Stiles and Skutch 1989). Arrives in Colombia by October, departs by early May (Hilty and Brown 1986).

Scarlet tanagers eat insects while foraging in treetops, in shrubs or on the ground. Preferred foods include aphids, nut weevils, wood borers, leaf beatles, cicadas, scale insects, dragonflies, ants, termites, caterpillars of gypsy moths, parasitic wasps, bees, mulberries, June-berries, huckleberries and other wild fruits.

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: fruit

Comments: Eats insects and other invertebrates, and various fruits; diet includes moths, bees, caterpillars, larvae of gall insects, wood- and bark-boring beetles, click and leaf-eating beetles, crane flies, and all stages of gypsy moths, except the eggs. Nestlings are fed insects and fruit. Forages primarily at mid-canopy (6-18 m off the ground). Occasionally descends to the ground or ascends to the topmost tree branches. Searches for insects on leaves, twigs, and branches, examining the substrate in a leisurely fashion. Often picks at dense leaf clusters at the outer tips of limbs (Isler and Isler 1987). Also chases aerial insects (Bushman and Therres 1988). May feed on ground-dwelling prey (e.g., grasshoppers, ground beetles, earthworms) during periods of persistent rainfall and/or low temperatures when flying insects are inactive (Zumeta and Holmes 1978). These authors suggested that severe cases of inclement weather may contribute to a significant several-year reduction in local scarlet tanager breeding populations.

Adult scarlet tanagers are eaten by birds of prey, including eastern screech owls, long-eared owls, short-eared owls and merlins. Eggs and nestling predators include blue jays, grackles, American crows, squirrels, chipmunks, and snakes.

Scarlet tanagers mob most predators, diving and swooping around them while calling at them. However, scarlet tanagers respond to American crows and merlins by becoming quiet and watchful, apparently in an attempt to be inconspicuous.

Known Predators:

• eastern screech owls (Otus asio)
• long-eared owls (Asio otus)
• short-eared owls (Asio flammeus)
• merlins (Falco columbarius)
• blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata)
• grackles (Quiscalus)
• American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos)
• tree squirrels (Sciurus)
• chipmunks (Tamias)
• snakes (Serpentes)

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Numerous occurrences.

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Far more than 10,000 individuals.

In migration, this usually solitary tanager sometimes is found in loosely associated groups and may join mixed-species flocks. Summer home ranges often relatively large for a forest passerine; territory size varies a great deal, reported sizes 0.8 to 12.5 hectares (summarized in Mowbray 1999).

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 121 months.

Scarlet tanagers form monogamous pairs for breeding each season. No studies of banded birds have confirmed that pair bonds last beyond the breeding season. Males use a silent courtship display in which they fly to exposed branches below a female and extend their wings and neck to expose their scarlet back. Females are apparently attracted to the male's scarlet color as well as their posture and movements.

Mating System: monogamous

Breeding occurs from May to August. Females build shallow, saucer-shaped nests in a week or less from twigs, rootlets, coarse grass, and weed stems, and line them with fine grasses and pine needles. They are placed anywhere from 4-75 feet above ground. Four to 5, usually 4, pale blue-green eggs with brown speckles are incubated for 13-14 days. Though they are brooded by females only, both parents bring food to the nest. The nest is kept clean and the droppings are swallowed or carried away in the bill. The young are able to leave the nest about 9-15 days after hatching.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average time to hatching: 13 days.

Average eggs per season: 4.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

Males arrive in breeding areas in April and May, usually several days before the female, and establish a territory by singing almost continuously from conspicuous perches high in the canopy of mature trees. Territorial boundaries are not rigid and males frequently dispute, especially when the female is present (Isler and Isler 1987, Prescott 1965). Once paired, the male abandons the high perch. The female chooses the nest site and builds the nest alone (Isler and Isler 1987). The nest is built in 2-7 days.

In the mid-Atlantic states, nesting extends from early May to early August, with a peak from late May to mid-July (Bushman and Therres 1988). Eggs are laid mostly in May-June. Clutch size is 3-5 (usually 4). Incubation, by female, lasts 12-14 days. Young are tended by both parents, leave nest at 9-15 days, usually 14-15 days after hatching. The nestlings are brooded by the female for about 3 days after they hatch. During this time both parents feed the young. Fledged young are attended by adult for up to 2 weeks after fledging. Nests sometimes contain young into August. It is thought that only one brood is raised per season (Senesac 1993, Isler and Isler 1987, Prescott 1965).

During the breeding season, females sing a song that is similar to that of the males, and both males and females also produce the "chic-burr" call.

Scarlet tanagers are abundant and widespread, requiring no special conservation status.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Large breeding range in eastern North America; numerous occurrences; stable population; loss/fragmentation of mature forest is a potential threat to population stability.

Other Considerations: ALABAMA: Found in the northeastern portion of the state, from Tuscaloosa northward. ARKANSAS: Common summer resident in extensive upland woods. Chiefly found in the Ozarks and Ouachitas and in smaller numbers elsewhere. Favors higher elevations (James and Neal 1986). CONNECTICUT: Widely distributed throughout the state. DELAWARE: No reply for this state. GEORGIA: No specific information located. ILLINOIS: Common summer resident statewide. Populations speculated to be decreasing. INDIANA: Fairly common summer resident, statewide; most abundant in the northern third of state. Elsewhere, especially south, appears to be uncommon (Mumford and Keller 1984). IOWA: Scattered distribution throughout the state; less common in northwest regions. KANSAS: An uncommon transient and rare nesting species in eastern third of state. Rare to casual westward (Thompson and Ely 1992). KENTUCKY: Uncommon to common summer resident. Breeds in mature deciduous forests throughout the state; most numerous on the Cumberland Plateau and Mountains; less numerous and more local to the west. MAINE: Uncommon, though regular in most of western Maine. Perhaps only occasional to rare in north and east sections (Palmer 1949). MARYLAND: Breeds throughout the state. MASSACHUSETTS: No reply from this state. MICHIGAN: Relatively evenly distributed throughout the state in deciduous woods (Brewer et al. 1991). MINNESOTA: Regular migrant and summer resident. Most numerous in central, east-central, and southeast regions. Least numerous and absent over wide areas in south central and southwestern regions, and in the Red River Valley of the northwestern region (Janssen 1987). MISSISSIPPI: No specific information located. MISSOURI: Found statewide. Indications of population increase 4% annually from Breeding Bird Survey data. NEBRASKA: Breeds locally in eastern regions (Johnsgard 1979). NEW HAMPSHIRE: Fairly common breeder throughout the state. NEW JERSEY: Common migrant and summer resident throughout the state. Probably more common as a breeder in north and central regions than in the southern region. Population is stable. NEW YORK: Common breeder in a variety of forest types. Absent from large urban areas and tracts of mountain spruce. NORTH CAROLINA: Found in the mountains, piedmont, and northwest half of the Coastal Plain. Absent as a breeder near the coast and in some southeastern counties. Population believed to be increasing and distribution expanding eastward. NORTH DAKOTA: Common in the east and central portions; uncommon to rare elsewhere. OHIO: Population stable with indications of increase. Widely distributed throughout the state; more numerous along the entire Allegheney Plateau. OKLAHOMA: No specific information located. PENNSYLVANIA: Common to abundant breeder in east-central regions. In southeast, found scarce and rather local. Breeding Bird Survey data indicate increases in populations (Brauning 1992). RHODE ISLAND: Common summer resident. Widespread in interior portions; noticeably uncommon in coastal lowland regions. Also found locally on larger islands (Narragansett Bay, Conanicut Island). Stable population. SOUTH CAROLINA: Accidental breeder on the coastal plain; probably uncommon in the lower piedmont; fairly common in upper piedmont and mountains. SOUTH DAKOTA: Uncommon summer resident in the east, most often seen in migration; rare migrant and possible breeder in the west. TENNESSEE: Locally distributed statewide. VERMONT: Thinly, but widely distributed through deciduous and mixed woodlands of the state. In the past 50 years, indications of population increases are noted (Laughlin and Kibbe 1985). VIRGINIA: No significant population changes. Common breeder in mature deciduous forests throughout the state. WEST VIRGINIA: Fairly common to common summer resident throughout the state in forested areas. Uncommon in the southwest near Huntington, farther east numbers increase (Hall 1983). WISCONSIN: Fairly common summer resident statewide. Areas with fewer woodlots (south and east counties) may have lower populations. Possible population declines may be attributed to agricultural conversion of forests (Robbins 1991). MANITOBA: During the breeding season, found in a number of locations in the southern province in suitable habitat. All confirmed breeding records have taken place in the southeastern province, except for Riding Mountain National Park records in the southwest. NEW BRUNSWICK: Found mostly in interior valleys with no evidence or reason for declines. NOVA SCOTIA: Very patchy occurrences in rich hardwood habitats; especially north central province. Near absent on Atlantic Slope and Cape Breton Island (Erskine 1992). ONTARIO: Breeds in upland fairly mature deciduous and mixed forests in Carolinian and Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest Zones. Historical information indicates stable population trends with some localized declines (Cadman et al. 1987). QUEBEC: No specific information located. SASKATCHEWAN: Possible breeding at Madge Lake and Nipawin.

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data indicate a stable population in North America, 1966-1994; nonsignificant increase of 4% occurred from 1966 to 1993 and a nonsignificant increase of 6% from 1984 to 1993 (Price et al. 1995). Most states report stable populations with some reporting possible declines (Illinois, Wisconsin), and others reporting possible increases (North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania). Litwin and Smith (1992) stated that populations have dropped by 50 percent between 1950 and 1980 at the Sapsucker Woods Sanctuary in Ithaca, New York. They associated this decrease with the loss of vertical and horizontal heterogeneity, and the overall decline in productivity associated with forest maturation. This local study may offer insight to other patterns of population decline.

Degree of Threat: C : Not very threatened throughout its range, communities often provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure over the short-term, or communities are self-protecting because they are unsuitable for other uses

Comments: The greatest threat is the continual loss and fragmentation of breeding and wintering habitat. Specific effects caused by habitat alterations are not clearly understood. Possible effects include increased nest predation by edge species (e.g., raccoons, domestic cats, etc.) and increased cowbird parasitism. Little is known of the relationship between the tanager and its habitat features, especially where habitat manipulations are occurring. Identifying specific threats affecting this species is difficult due to this lack of information. A common host to the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) and the most parasitized of the tanager family. Adult tanagers seem to recognize female cowbirds as enemies and usually attack on sight (Terres 1980, Prescott 1965). Friedmann (1963) stated that this tanager is not among the primary cowbird hosts. Known predators include screech owl (Otus asio), barred owl (Strix varia), long-eared owl (Asio otus), short-eared owl (Asio flammeus), blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata), American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), and Merlin (Falco columbarius) (Senesac 1993, Prescott 1965). In addition, suspected predators include gray (Sciurus carolinensis), red (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), and fox (SCIURUS NIGRA) squirrels and chipmunks (Tamias spp.) (Senesac 1993).

Restoration Potential: Currently reported as common and stable throughout its range with only a few speculations of decline. Population restoration is currently not an issue. However, efforts should be made to maintain populations, thus eliminating the need restoration in the future.

Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Typically found in relatively small tracts of forest, being absent only from areas less than 1-5 ha (Bushman and Therres 1988). However, block sizes of greater than or equal to 100 ha are probably necessary for maximum densities and/or population sizes (Bushman and Therres 1988).

At this time, specific habitat requirements are not documented. However, suggestions for conserving area-sensitive birds in forest landscapes were offered by Robbins et al. (1989). They concluded that forest areas under 10 ha are unsuitable and 3,000 ha is the minimum forest size that may retain all the species of forest-interior avifauna of eastern North America. However, critical habitat features that influence species success have not been thoroughly investigated (Martin 1992). These habitat features will have a great influence on future preserve designs.

Management Requirements: May occupy clearcut areas as early as 12 years after cutting if some small trees are left uncut. Group selection logging, which creates a mosaic of even-aged patches, may create favorable conditions. Tolerates small or narrow clearcuts, thinning of "overmature" trees, and selection cutting (Bushman and Therres 1988).

Developing and implementing conservation plans will be dependent upon understanding the relationships between landscape structure and the distribution and probability of extinction of local species (Freemark and Collins 1992, Reed 1992). Past management and research investigations correlated landscape features with species presence and abundance. Presence and abundance information does not directly correlate with habitat features. However, species fitness is directly correlated with habitat features by supplying resources (Martin 1992). Martin (1992) suggested that management plans need to consider specific habitat features that have a direct effect on fitness through reproduction and survival.

Reed (1992) suggested that a ranking scheme is needed for future management efforts and research needs. He stated that a scheme that is biologically based (i.e., based on characteristics of species abundance and distribution) can be used to organize research and prioritize conservation efforts. Rankings can include habitat information from breeding and wintering ranges and can be integrated with other ranking systems, such as economic considerations.

Management Research Needs: In order to understand specific management needs, additional life history information is needed. In addition, effects of forest loss and fragmentation need to be addressed. Issues of primary concern are: 1) effects of habitat loss in wintering versus breeding range, 2) specific habitat features (e.g., habitat size, composition, etc) and associated resources that directly influence reproduction and survival, and 3) consequences of those features for coexisting species and any interacting species, and the effects they have on one another (biodiversity approach) (Martin 1992).

Biological Research Needs: Has not been extensively studied in most areas (Senesac 1993). Additional information is needed on breeding behavior, diet and foraging, winter range, and habitat relationships. Is this bird monogamous? How extensive is cowbird parasitism? How many broods per season?

Global Protection: Many to very many (13 to >40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Needs: Protect extensive tracts of mature forest.

There are no known negative effects of scarlet tanagers on humans.

Scarlet tanagers eat insects that some humans may consider to be pests.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Stewardship Overview: A common forest bird of the northeastern and north-central United States. BBS data indicate a stable population throughout most of the range. Although a lot of information is available about this bird, most of what is known is based on intensive but very localized studies. We need further rangewide information on specific habitat requirements and the effects of habitat alteration (e.g., fragmentation, forest loss, etc.). Continued monitoring is appropriate.

Comments: Mitochondrial genetic data from several studies (Burns 1997; Burns et al. 2002, 2003; Klicka et al. 2000, 2007) provide strong evidence that this genus, previously placed in the Thraupidae, is a member of the Cardinalidae.

May constitute a superspecies with P. ludoviciana (AOU 1998).