Nightjars return from Africa in late April and May. Upon return, males attract a mate and establish a territory by calling. During courtship males fly around a female, often wing clapping or gliding with the tail spread out and wings held up. Nests are selected by males and are usually a shallow scrape on bare ground amongst heather or bracken. Eggs are laid between mid-May and mid- July. A typical clutch consists of 1-3 eggs, and if the first brood is produced early in the season, a second brood may be possible. The migration to Africa starts in August and September (2). Nightjars hunt for insects on the wing at dusk and dawn, their agility allows them to perform rapid twists and turns in pursuit of their prey. Most of the diet consists of moths, flies, craneflies, beetles, and ants. Nightjars have an unusual serrated middle claw which they use to preen their feathers (2).

This crepuscular bird has finely patterned tree-bark like cryptic plumage that provides excellent camouflage in the daytime when it is inactive. Adults have a flat, wide head, small bill and large eyes that enable them to see in low light levels. Males can be distinguished from females by their white wing patches. Due to their long wings and tail, nightjars are very agile flyers (2). The scientific name Caprimulgus means 'goat sucker'; the species was fabled to milk goats due to their wide, soft mouths and habit of feeding near grazing animals. This superstition is ancient, dating back to Aristotle. The common name 'nightjar' refers to the loud jarring or 'churring' call of the male, which can contain 1900 notes per minute. A 'coo-ik' call is also given in flight (4).

European nightjars spend summers in the Palearctic. Populations exist from Ireland in the west through Mongolia and eastern Russia in the east. Summer ranges extend from Scandinavia and Siberia in the north through northern Africa and the Persian Gulf in the south. European nightjars migrate in order to breed in the northern hemisphere. They winter in Africa, primarily in the southern and eastern reaches of the continent. Iberian and Mediterranean breeding birds winter in West Africa and vagrants have been recorded in the Seychelles.

Biogeographic Regions: palearctic (Native ); ethiopian (Native )

In the UK the nightjar is at the western extreme of its breeding range, which extends to China and Mongolia in the east, southern Scandinavia in the north and south to North Africa. It is a summer visitor to the UK, and winters in Africa. The breeding range in the UK has contracted from the north and west, but strongholds remain in southern England and East Anglia, there are also scattered populations as far north as Scotland (3).

Caprimulgus europaeus individuals reach lengths of 26 to 28 cm, with wingspans of 57 to 64 cm. European nightjars may weigh 41 to 101 grams. Standard base body color is gray to reddish-brown with complex cryptic overlaid markings of white, black and varying shades of brown. The body shape of nightjars is reminiscent of falcons, with long, pointed wings and long tails. European nightjars have brown irises, deep red mouths, and brown legs. Bristles ring their black bills.

Adult males bear white lower throats, often divided into two distinct patches by a gray or orange-brown vertical stripe. Males have black-barred chests and undulating dark scapular lines. The most distinctive features are the white patches visible on the outer rectrices and the distal portions of the three outer primaries. Females appear similar, but have tan tail and wing patches or lack contrasting spots all together. Immature birds look very similar to females, but are usually paler with less contrast on the scapulars and bellies. Black web markings are far less extensive, making them appear lighter overall.

Several subspecies of Caprimulgus europaeus are described:

Caprimulgus europaeus europaeus is found from Scandinavia east to Lake Baikal in Russia, with populations tapering off to the south along the East-West range. This subspecies is the largest.

Caprimulgus europaeus meridionalis is found in Western Europe, Northern Africa and east Mediterranean countries. Individuals of this subspecies are smaller and paler than C. europaeus europaeus.

Members of subspecies C. europaeus unwini are also small, but much lighter in color than other subspecies with gray base coloring. Caprimulgus europaeus unwin ranges through the Middle East, Central Asia and western China. These individuals possess larger white primary patches than the European subspecies.

Caprimulgus europaeus sarudnyi is medium-sized, and lighter colored than European subspecies, but more dominantly brownish than the gray C. europaeus unwini.

Caprimulgus europaeus plumipes is a Chinese subspecies. Among these individuals regular spotting present on the scapulars and upper coverts.

Caprimulgus europaeus dementievi rarely possess black-barred tail feathers, and are characterized by yellowish bellies. They range from western Mongolia across central Russia.

Range mass: 41 to 101 g.

Range length: 26 to 28 cm.

Range wingspan: 57 to 64 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful

Systems

• Terrestrial

European nightjars are associated with a great variety of habitat types and elevations including moors, orchards, near deserts, wetlands, boreal forests, Mediterranean scrub and young birch, poplar, or conifer stands. They do not favor dense forest or high mountains, but prefer glades, meadows and other open or lightly forested zones that are free from daytime disturbances.

African habitats occupied by Caprimulgus europaeus during the winter are also widely variable. Notably, European nightjars may populate regions as high as 5000 m in Africa.

Range elevation: 0 to 5000 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: riparian

Nightjars feed over a range of habitats such as freshwater wetlands, orchards and even gardens. However the most important habitats for the species are lowland heathland and young forestry plantations. Acidic heathland on gravely or sandy soils support strong nightjar populations in the south of Britain (3).

European nightjars are crepuscular and noctural insectivores. They catch flying insects in their wide mouths with the aid of short bills and surrounding rictal bristles. Some common prey organisms include moths (Hepialidae, Cossidae, Pyralidae, Arctiidae, Lymantriidae) beetles (Carabidae, Dytiscidae, Chrysomelidae) mantids (Mantidae), mayflies (Ephemeroptera), dragonflies (Odonata), cockroaches (Blattaria), Hymenoptera, butterflies (Lepidoptera), and occasionally spiders (Araneae). Fat is accumulated before migration to aid in the journey south.

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

European nightjars are generalist insectivores that help keep insect populations in check. Additionally, these birds provide nourishment for raptors, owls, and many medium-sized generalist predators. No specific mutualistic relationships between Caprimulgus europeaus and other species are described in the literature.

Haemoproteus blood parasites use European Nightjars as hosts.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• Haemoproteus

Caprimulgus europaeus is preyed on by various owls (Strigiformes) and raptors (Falconiformes), as well as adders (Vipera nikolskii). Foxes (Vulpes vulpes), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), magpies (Pica), crows (Corvus), and Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius), prey on European nightjar eggs.

The extreme cryptic markings of this species allow individuals to conceal themselves in broad daylight by perching motionless on a branch or stone and mimicking their substrate. European nightjars generally employ crypsis as their first defense. If pressed, members of this species perform various injury-feigning displays to distract or lure predators away from nest sites. Females will sometimes lie motionless on their sides for extended periods. Frequently these displays involve shaking spread or lifted wings while calling or hissing. Adults have also been known to chase away owls (Strix aluco and Althene noctua) and bats and actively dive at and graze human intruders. When alarmed the young open their bright red mouths and hiss, perhaps creating the impression of a snake or other dangerous creature. As the grow older they also open their wings to increase their perceived size. Eventually chicks shift their primary predator response to crypsis as well.

Known Predators:

• adders (Vipera nikolskii)
• red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)
• Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius)
• hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus)
• diurnal raptors (Falconiformes)
• crows (Corvus))
• feral dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)
• owls (Strigiformes)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

European nightjars use a wide variety of sounds to communicate. Vociferous males let out long "churring" vocalizations from perches within their territories, sometimes calling for 10 minutes continuously. When the male approaches the nest he often produces a burbling trill. Both males and females produce repeated sharp "qoik-qoik!" notes as contact calls. At the nest male and female birds make a grunting "wuff." Agitated birds hiss and babies beg for food with an insistent "brüh- brüh." According to recent sonogram analysis, each male nightjar also sings a unique song. European nightjars frequently clap their wings together as well, combining visual and acoustic elements in display. This wing clapping probably serves a number of purposes and is a form of communication generally directed at other European nightjars. Various flight patterns and ground behaviors are used to distract, intimidate, or attract other animals. This species is notable for feigning injury both in the air and on the ground.

European nightjars are noted for "wing clapping"; they open their wings and slap them together behind their backs, creating a smacking noise. Wing clapping is used in greeting, defense, intimidation and courting displays. During courtship, the male bird glides about with his wings in a V shape, frequently clapping them together. When a female alights on the ground, the male lands facing her and they sway in tandem. When the female ceases swaying, the male bobs up and down, opens his wings and spasms his tail momentarily before copulation begins. Once a pair has formed the two birds roost together.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

As of 1983 the oldest banded individual was recorded as 8 years old, but more recent estimates suggest European nightjars might live as long as 11 years.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 11 (high) years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 11.9 years.

Maximum longevity: 11.9 years (wild)

European nightjars breed between May and September. One male and one female form a bond lasting one year. The pair will raise one or two broods. Occasionally pairs may split, and the female may raise another brood fathered by a different male. Some reports tell of an extra male occasionally aiding a male-female pair in raising young.

Mating System: monogamous ; cooperative breeder

European nightjars form pairs and breed during spring and summer months. Usually one male and one female raise a brood of chicks, although occasionally another male will assist in raising one pair's young, or two females will lay their eggs in one nest.

In a small, unlined scrape on the ground female European nightjars lay 2 to 4 smooth, white, elliptical eggs. The eggs may be marked or blotched irregularly and weigh between 7 and 9.9 grams. The female incubates the eggs for 17 to 18 days. Her mate will take short shifts while she leaves to feed at dawn and dusk. The semi-altricial young hatch asynchronously and fledge after 16 to 17 days. They become independent after about 16 more days. If conditions are favorable, a female will sometimes leave her firs brood with her mate when the chicks are about 14 days old to rear her second brood. European nightjars are mature and ready to breed after one year.

Breeding interval: European nightjars breed once or twice yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from May to September.

Range eggs per season: 2 to 4.

Range time to hatching: 17 to 18 days.

Range fledging age: 16 to 17 days.

Range time to independence: 32 (low) days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 (low) years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 (low) years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Male European nightjars select nesting sites. Both parents provide food for the young. Female European nightjars are the primary incubators, although the male may care for the first young alone for a time if the female commits to producing a second brood. The young hatch with open eyes, but still must be fed. From about 19 days on, the young may accompany the male on foraging trips; he feeds his young on the ground or at the nest.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There are 7 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 7
Species: 8
Species With Barcodes: 1

European nightjars are listed as a species of least concern by the IUCN Red List. This species is locally common in much of its Palearctic range, though distribution and numbers have recently been shrinking in Europe. Habitat loss and the use of pesticides has been blamed for these shrinking numbers. Breeding populations are estimated at between 290,000 and 830,000 pairs in Europe with an estimated 500,000 more pairs in Russia.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Regular passage visitor.

Least Concern.

Listed under the Birds of Conservation Concern Red List, Annex 1 of the EC Birds Directive, Appendix II of the Bern Convention and protected in the UK under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (3).

Population

The nightjar has been declining in both numbers and range in the UK since the beginning of the 20th century, and in 1981 the population reached its lowest level, with just 2100 males recorded. Between 1968-1972 and 1992 the range decreased by 52%. Despite a partial recovery (numbers were up to 3400 males in 1992), this species is still threatened. A loss of suitable breeding and foraging habitat is thought to have been a major cause of the decline; 40% of England's lowland heathland has been lost since the 1950s, and existing habitat still faces pressures from housing and road developments. It is also thought that a reduction in insect prey availability caused by climatic factors and pesticide use has played a role in the decline of the nightjar (3). Other contributory factors may be predation by adders (Vipera berus), lack of appropriate management on existing heathland sites leading to scrub invasion, and poor winter survival in the nightjar's African wintering grounds (2).

Nightjars breed on a number of RSPB nature reserves where management techniques are used to benefit the species. These techniques include the thinning of encroaching scrub, leaving patches that can be used as nesting sites and increasing the area of short heather available for nesting. The nightjar is a UK Biodiversity Action Plan species, this plan aims to halt the decline, and increase the numbers to 4000 churring males by 2003 (5). Main areas of work have included the protection of existing lowland heathland and foraging habitats, creation of new habitats, and the promotion of sympathetic forestry management practices and agricultural systems in the wider countryside (2). Conservation action targeted at the nightjar will be likely to help the woodlark (Lullula arborea) (5).

European nightjars have no known negative impacts on human economies. In the 1890's they were reportedly a nuisance to beekeepers and collectors of Lepidoptera.

European nightjars eat insects, which may be beneficial when there are many insect pests in the area. Historically, European nightjars have been prized quarry for Central Asian falconers, owing to their erratic and darting flight.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population