Sun Parakeet Aratinga solstitialis is restricted to central Guyana and Roraima state, Brazil, and may previously have occurred in Surinam¹. Though it was fairly common until the 1970s in the Rupununi-Roraima savannas of western Guyana and adjacent Brazil, it has since been extirpated there, presumably by trappers, and it is now very scarce or absent across its former range. In Brazil it was recorded from the Mau river, Contão Cotingo river and Maracá Ecological Station² during the 1990s. Its stronghold is probably the Sipaliwini and flocks of up to 12 birds have been recently recorded at the Terra Indígena Raposa Serra do Sol, and alongside the road from Santa Helena (Venezuela) to Boa Vista 50 km from the border and 1.5 km from the Venezuelan border on the road to Boa Vista^3,4. In Guyana evidence of nesting has been found in the Karasabai area where 50-80 individuals were seen in 2003, and c.25 km from this site there are recent records from Karanambo (c. 30 km from the Brazilian border at Bonfim), and on the West Bank of Demerara in 2006^4,5. Its population probably now numbers no more than a couple of thousand individuals, and may even be less than a thousand³, with at least 90% of these in Brazil.

Aratinga solstitialis occupies a geographic range throughout South America, but has been recorded mostly north of the Amazon River in Brazil from Mount Roraima and the adjacent Pacaraima Mountains to Amapa, Para and eastern Amazonas near Rio Branco. It is believed to have once been spotted in the southern French Guianas and in south-eastern Venezuela near Santa Elena, although there have been no published records of these birds in those areas. Although rare, sun conures have been recorded from Guyana north to the Pomeroon River. It is common throughout eastern and southern Surinam and on the Sipaliwini savannah. It is also found south of the Amazon River near Santarem and the Canuma River and has been observed living near the tributaries of the Amazon River itself. Despite being native to South America, two individuals of this species were observed repeatedly flying over Wilton Manor in Florida’s Broward County. These two individuals were probably the result of an unintentional release, however, as they are a common pet species in North America.

Biogeographic Regions: neotropical (Native )

Sun conures are considered to be “the most beautiful of neotropical parrots”. Adults are typically 30 cm in length and weigh between 100 and 123 g. The wings measure 146 to 162 mm in length and the bill grows to somewhere between 19 and 25 mm. They have medium-sized bodies and long, pointed tails. In coloration, these birds are bright yellow with red markings on the sides of their head and a red-orange tinge on their forehead, lower abdomen, rump, and lower back. The under tail-coverts are green and yellow with similar coloration on the mantle, lesser and median upper and under wing-coverts. The secondary coverts are green with the outer webs of primary coverts being blue. The primary and secondary feathers are green with the primaries becoming blue near the tips. The upper-side of the tail is olive and tipped with blue while the underside of the tail and the flight feathers are olive-grey. Their irises are dark brown with a naked, white eye ring surrounding both eyes. The bill and legs are both dark in coloration, a shade somewhere between grey and black. Older birds may have more of a flesh tone to their feet.

Immature birds are duller in color with more green feathers on the head, throat and body. They may have some poorly defined orange-red on their rump, lower back, breast and abdomen and have lighter bills. The adult feathers develop quite late in these birds, juveniles usually do not attain full coloration until 18 months to two years of age. Some birds in captivity even leave the nest with green backs.

Females and males are very similar and are difficult to tell apart based solely on appearance. However, females tend to have shorter tails, measuring 121 to 146 mm compared to the 131 to 146 mm of males. The colors are sometimes brighter in males, especially around the face and abdomen, though this is not always the case because sun conures show wide color variation from bird to bird. Other anatomical differences can be used to help determine the sex of the bird, but none are completely reliable. The hen’s head, for example, is rounder and smaller than the male’s, which tends to be more square and flat. Males have longer, more rectangular heads when viewed from above whereas the female’s skull appears almost triangular, with the beak forming the apex. In general, male birds appear stronger and more massively built, looking more parrot-like than the slender, narrower females. Hens are proportionately lighter and have smaller beaks. They should also have a larger distance between pelvic bones than males, though this is usually only true after reaching sexual maturity or right before laying eggs.

Sun conures are similar in appearance to the closely related species A. jandaya, A. weddelli and A. auricapillus. While they are all separate species, many have recognized them as forming a “super-species” because of their similarities and the fact that they have been known to hybridize in captivity. This hybridization has never been confirmed in nature, however, likely because their habitats do not overlap. Compared to these closely related species, A. solstitialis is lighter in weight, more colorful and has light yellow down instead of white at the time of hatching.

Evidence suggests that dietary factors may affect the coloration of these birds as those in captivity are standard in coloration, but wild birds differ slightly depending on where they live.

Range mass: 100 to 123 g.

Range length: 121 to 146 cm.

Average length: 30 cm.

Range wingspan: 146 to 162 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Sun conures are found only in tropical habitats, preferring to live on open savannah or within dry savanna woodland. They are also commonly found in scrublands (usually along the Amazon riverbank) and forested valleys, as well as in coastal and seasonally flooded forests. Preferring an altitude of less than 1200 meters, these birds sometimes live in valleys or near mountain slopes. They tend to inhabit palm groves and anywhere where trees or bushes are fruiting profusely. They may require post-fire habitats and are sensitive to human activity such as cattle grazing. These birds have not been widely studied in the wild because they only reside in largely undeveloped parts of the country that are difficult to access.

Range elevation: 1200 (high) m.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

Other Habitat Features: riparian

Little is known about the actual diet of these birds in the wild. The stomach contents of examined birds have indicated that they feed on ripe and half-ripe seeds of various fruits and berries. They have also been known to eat nuts, blossoms, buds, fruit pits, wind-dispersed seeds and insects. Some groups of sun conures have also been known to devour and destroy entire crops near human habituation. Red cactus fruit is also a likely food choice among these birds as well as Malpighia berries and legume pods.

During the breeding season, more protein is required in the diet to keep these birds healthy. Similarly, long flights and young rearing call for more carbohydrates and egg production and skeletal growth require a higher calcium intake.

In captivity, their diets should be varied and include seeds, grains, beans, nuts, fruits and vegetables. Often times, however, they prefer to eat what tastes best to them over what they actually require for a healthy diet, often leading to malnutrition. In rare cases, these birds can eat large amounts of food and still die from malnutrition if they are not getting all of the nutrients that they need. Despite this, they are not picky eaters and can live primarily on grass seed. However, a diet of seeds alone can have a significantly negative effect on breeding. These birds really enjoy a variety of foods such as spinach, Chinese cabbage, cress, roquette, kale, broccoli, carrot tops, alfalfa, peas, endive, sweet potatoes, apples, bananas, citrus fruits, oranges, grapefruits, strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, currants, rowans, elderberries, hawthorn berries, rose hips, carrots, cucumbers and tomatoes. These foods can be given fresh, dehydrated or in the form of baby food. Dandelions and chickweed are also occasionally fed to these birds as well as soaked corn, germinated sunflower seeds and spray millet. Buds from fruit trees, elderberry bushes, willows, hawthorn, and aspen branches are suitable as well. While insects are not a wise choice in captivity, some people may include mealworms in their diet. Others substitute the mealworms with hard-boiled eggs, bread, biscuits, hard cheese and low-fat dry cottage cheese. Ant eggs, though expensive, are also sometimes included in the diet. Finally, cuttlebones, mineral blocks and gravel or ground oyster shells should be given to aid in digestion.

Because of an adaptation in the wild, conures will not eat anything they haven’t had before unless they see another bird eat it first. In captivity, some birds then want to try what their keepers are eating, which can be dangerous to their health. Spicy foods and salami are particularly bad for these birds. Lettuce, while definitely healthy for them, can cause intestinal problems and should only be fed in moderation. Peanuts, though acceptable, can be contaminated with fungal toxins that cause liver damage and cancer. They should never be given caffeine, alcohol, chocolate, fruit pits or avocado.

Animal Foods: eggs

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers

Primary Diet: herbivore (Frugivore )

Sun conures are seed dispersers, meaning that they transport seeds away from the parent plant by eating the seeds in fruit and later excreting them, unharmed, in their stool. The harvesting of Mauritia palms in which sun conures nest may eventually damage the ecosystem because the birds will no longer be assisting in the transport of seeds where these trees no longer exist.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

Predation in the wild has not been observed, though many cavity nesting species are vulnerable to predators such as snakes or terrestrial mammals during the breeding season.

Sun conures have a harsh voice. While in flight, their call is a very loud, high-pitched ‘screek-screek’ repeated rapidly three to six times. Like other parrot species, they also make high-pitched wheezy sounds and quieter chuckling noises while perched. Despite their loud flight calls, they are usually very quiet while feeding. Baby sun conures can only be heard when they are hungry, though they quickly develop the loud, repetitive adult call, which they use to induce feeding by the parents. Like most birds, sun conures perceive their environments through visual, auditory, tactile and chemical stimuli.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Other Communication Modes: mimicry ; choruses

The lifespans of wild sun conures is currently unknown. Birds in captivity are expected to live 15 to 30 years.

Typical lifespan

Status: captivity: 15 to 30 years.

Little is known about sun conure reproduction and nesting in the wild. There is no known courtship behavior among any species of conure. Most do not announce their intent to breed at all. However, paired birds can be seen feeding one another and will participate in intensive mutual grooming prior to breeding. Mating will last up to three minutes in a pair. After breeding, pairs become very affectionate with one another but very aggressive toward others, often attacking their keepers if kept in captivity. Before laying eggs, swelling of the abdomen is noticeable in females.

Mating System: monogamous

Females in the wild have been known to nest in trees or in cavities in Maurita flexuosa palms. They desire clean nests, free from any previously used nesting materials. The nest may be cleaned repeatedly up until egg-laying is complete. The average clutch size is 3 to 4 eggs, with eggs being laid one at a time in two to three day intervals. The eggs are round, measure about 26.7 to 29.5 mm by 22.0 to 23.5 mm, and weigh about 8.74 g. These eggs are incubated for 23 to 27 days, which is nearly forty percent longer than that of other birds when compared to egg mass. The young fledge 7 to 8 weeks after hatching and become independent after 9 to 10 weeks.

The eggs laid by A. solstitialis contain more solids and less water than those of other species. The initial caloric content of the eggs is higher than is typical for equal size eggs of similar species. The rate of embryonic oxygen consumption increases throughout incubation. Embryos have a total metabolism of 18.029 kJ, which is greater than expected based on egg mass.

The fertility rate of all conure species is especially high. If a clutch does fail, the pair will breed again right away. Clutches can fail if the male is too young or too old or if the temperature is too low. Humidity does not seem to have any effect on hatching. In rare cases, conure pairs have destroyed and eaten their own eggs, usually as a result of a protein or calcium deficiency. This can quickly become habit. Clutches can also fail if the eggs are left to cool for too long, and individual eggs can fail to hatch if they become too dirty or if the young bird fails to break through the shell. Babies may also suffer from bone deformities if they are born to parents who survive on only seed. A complete failure to raise young is rarer in conures than in most other species.

Sun conures reach sexual maturity somewhere around two years of age. However, a pair of birds must be approximately the same age for their eggs to be fertile. However, breeding is very common in captivity. While captive birds have no true breeding season, the increasing intensity of light and higher temperatures often stimulates them to breed in the spring. However, in their natural environment, nests have been found most often in February.

Breeding interval: Sun conures typically breed once annually

Breeding season: The breeding season for sun conures begins in February

Range eggs per season: 3 to 4.

Range time to hatching: 23 to 27 days.

Average birth mass: 6.02 g.

Range fledging age: 7 to 8 weeks.

Range time to independence: 9 to 10 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Females of this species handle incubation alone, only leaving the nest for brief feeding periods. Males usually guard the nests and remain nearby to keep the hens company. To protect the nest, birds may puff up their bodies, sway, and hiss at intruders. Hens may also retain their aggressive behavior after laying, screaming at and biting anything that gets too close.

It may take anywhere from a few hours to several days for a chick to completely escape from its egg. Chicks are born altricial, meaning they are blind, mostly naked, and completely dependent on their parents for food. At the time of hatching, they are incapable of even holding up their own heads. Although they grow comparatively slower than other birds, they fledge at ages similar to other species relative to their growth rate. Hatchlings weigh about 6.02 g, though the difference in size between the oldest and youngest is considerable.

Hatchlings remain in the nest under the care of their parents for 7 to 8 weeks. Both mother and father feed the chicks. For the first few days of life, babies are turned onto their backs for feeding. After ten days, the babies begin to open their eyes and feather quills break through. It usually takes about forty-five days for the feathers to grow in completely, after which the young birds are able to fly. Weaning does not begin until a week or so after fledging. Weaning is assisted by the parents, who hold food in their beaks and feet for the babies. During the last few days before leaving the nest, chicks usually lose about ten percent of their body weight, developing a lighter, more aerodynamic, and streamlined figure.

Parental Investment: altricial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female)

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 1
Species: 2
Species With Barcodes: 1

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2004
  Least Concern
• 1988
  Near Threatened

The Psittacidae family is considered the most endangered large avian family in the world. Sun conures as a species are also considered endangered due to the rapid reduction in its wild population size over the last three decades. While once believed to be fairly common, it is now believed that the supposed large population numbers may have simply been the result of a few populations occupying large ranges. Trapping for the pet trade has also played a significant part in reducing the species population by removing it from most of its former range. In 1988, this species was first recognized as near threatened. By 2004, it was considered of least concern but is now once again considered endangered and is in need of effective protection as the population continues to decrease.

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Conservation Actions

The trapping and transport of these birds as pets has led to the exchange of infectious disease in and among the captive population. Some of these diseases include Inclusion Body Hepatitis, Feather and Beak Disease and Proventricular Dilatation Syndrome as well as infection by Reovirus, Poxvirus, Papovirus, Herpesvirus, Adenovirus, and Paramyxovirus. Many of these are capable of being passed on to the eggs which inhibits hatching and are most commonly spread among the populations by humans. Bad breeding may also lead to illness and deformities among birds. Disease and deformity can harm the availability and popularity of these and other birds and therefore may actually be of great harm to the pet trade.

These birds have also been known to cause major crop damage within their range. It is thought possible that the Mayas of Central America may have abandoned their own villages suddenly because of the continuous crop devastation brought on by these and other voracious birds.

Negative Impacts: crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease

Popular as pets, sun conures are a major source of income for the international pet trade.

Positive Impacts: pet trade