Although the extensive system of rhizomes is perennial, in autumn the leaves of the reeds break away from the sheaths, which hold them in place. The dead reed stem remains in place throughout the winter (3). Reeds are still harvested for use in thatching, especially in the Norfolk Broads. Recently, there has been much interest in the potential of reedbeds as water filters; their spreading, creeping system of roots can remove nitrates and heavy metals from water (5).

This common reed forms large beds in shallow water; it has round, hollow stems, which typically grow to 2m in height, but may reach 4m (2). These stems grow from a system of stout, creeping rhizomes (3). The flat leaves taper into a point, and are attached to the stem by smooth sheaths, which are loose so that the leaves all point in one direction in the wind (2). The flowers are borne on highly branching purple inflorescences, which measure from 20 to 60cm in length (2). The flowers are grouped into 'spikelets', which are 10-15 mm in length and support 1-6 flowers (2).

 A tall reed with annual cane-like (round and hollow) stems up to 4 m in height, usually ca 2 m but occasionally less than 1m high. Forms beds with an extensive system of perennial rhizomes. Leaf blades are flat, ca 3-45 mm wide, usually 15-30 mm, tapering to long slender points. Leaves arranged alternately. Leaves are attached to the stem by a smooth sheath, bearing prominent wing-like extensions at the leaf base, with a fringe of fine hairs next to the stem. Flowers borne on a very large, many branched inflorescence 20-60 cm in length and usually purple in colour. Flowers arranged in spikelets, 10-15 mm in length, composed of 1-6 flowers. The small branches between the flowers bear conspicuous long, white silky hairs. The spikelet bears unequal sized scales (glumes) at its base. The lower scale (or casing) of the floret is larger than the upper scale. The flower is composed of a hairless ovary, bearing two scales, with 3 pollen bearing stamens, except in the lowest floret which has 1-3 stamens.Phragmites australis is a characteristic tall reed with a large purple inflorescence, however, accurate identification requires an examination of the structure of the inflorescence and flowers (for details see Haslam, 1972; Stace, 1999). The common reed is harvested primarily for use in thatching in Britain but has numerous uses worldwide (Haslam, 1972). Phragmites australis is the dominant species in reedbeds, a UK BAP habitat, and amongst the most important habitat for birds in the UK such as the bittern, the reed bunting and the marsh harrier (Anon, 1995; Hawke & José, 1996).

Giant Reed is a very imposing species that dwarfs most other grasses. In spite of its common name, the Giant Reed is a grass (a member of the Grass family), rather than a reed (whatever that means). With the exception of Arundinaria gigantea (Giant Cane), a species that occurs only in southern Illinois, Giant Reed is the tallest native grass species in Illinois. The Giant Cane is a native bamboo species that flowers only once in about 50 years, while mature specimens of Giant Reed bloom every year. Another grass species that can become as tall is Arundo donax, which is also called 'Giant Reed.' This latter species is cultivated as an ornamental grass and it is native to the Mediterranean area. The species Arundo donax is tall and columnar; it has leaves that are shorter and more spreading than those of Giant Reed. In Illinois, Arundo donax is usually shorter than the Giant Reed, but in warmer climates it can become taller. There is a less robust form of Arundo donax with variegated leaves. So far, this introduced species has naturalized only rarely in southern Illinois. A scientific synonym of Giant Reed is Phragmites communis, while 'Common Reed' is another common name that is occasionally applied to this native species.

This native perennial grass is 6-16' tall and unbranched; individual plants are erect or they may lean over with age. The culm is light green, hairless, and rather stout; it has small rectangular impressions across its surface. The alternate leaves are abundant along the culm and they are ascending. The leaf blades are up to 2' long and 2" across; they are light green or greyish blue, linear-lanceolate, and hairless. The upper surface of each leaf blade has conspicuous parallel veins. The leaf sheaths are the same color as the blades and they are hairless. The culm terminates in a panicle of spikelets up to 1½' long and half as much across. This panicle is densely branched and its branchlets are ascending or drooping. While the florets are in bloom, the panicle has a silky reddish appearance, although it becomes light tan later in the year. Each spikelet is up to 2/3" long and it has 3-7 florets; the lowest floret is sterile or staminate, while the remaining florets are perfect. At the bottom of this spikelet, there is a pair of linear-lanceolate glumes about ¼" long. The lemmas above the glumes are linear in shape and up to ½" long, becoming smaller as they ascend the rachilla (central stalk of the floret). Along the rachilla, there are tufts of long silky hairs. The blooming period occurs during mid- to late summer. The florets are wind-pollinated. Upon maturity, each perfect floret develops a grain, but it is often abortive or sterile. The root system consists of stout rhizomes and coarse fibrous roots. This grass often forms vegetative colonies that are sometimes quite large in size.

Grass Family (Poaceae). Common reed is a warm season, rhizomatous, stoloniferous perennial, native to the U.S. The height ranges from 6 to 12 feet. The leaf blade is flat; smooth; 1/2 to 2 inches wide; and 6 to 18 inches long. The seedhead is an open panicle with a purplish or tawny and flaglike appearance after seed shatter. Common reed is readily identified by its height. It is the tallest grass in southern marshes and swamps.

giant reed, giant reedgrass, Roseau, roseau cane, yellow cane, cane, Phragmites communis

Heist, United Kingdom Exclusive Economic Zone

Phragmites communis var. stenophyllus Boiss.:
India (Asia)
China (Asia)

Phragmites australis subsp. berlandieri (E. Fourn.) Saltonstall & Hauber:
Mexico (Mesoamerica)
United States (North America)
Caribbean (Caribbean)

Phragmites prostratus Makino:
Japan (Asia)

Phragmites frutescens H. Scholz:
Greece (Europe)

Phragmites hispanicus Nees:
Chile (South America)
Spain (Europe)

Phragmites chilensis Steud.:
Chile (South America)

Phragmites caudatus Nees ex Meyen:
Chile (South America)

Phragmites australis var. berlandieri (E. Fourn.) C.F. Reed:
Mexico (Mesoamerica)
United States (North America)
Caribbean (Caribbean)

Phragmites berlandieri E. Fourn.:
Mexico (Mesoamerica)

Phragmites dioicus Hack.:
Argentina (South America)

Czernya arundinacea C. Presl:
Italy (Europe)

Phragmites communis var. berlandieri (E. Fourn.) Fernald:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Phragmites phragmites (L.) H. Karst.:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Phragmites communis Trin.:
Peru (South America)
United States (North America)
Caribbean (Caribbean)
Guatemala (Mesoamerica)
Canada (North America)
Venezuela (South America)
New Zealand (Oceania)
India (Asia)
Honduras (Mesoamerica)
Ecuador (South America)
China (Asia)
Bolivia (South America)
Belize (Mesoamerica)
Madagascar (Africa & Madagascar)

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.:
Argentina (South America)
Belize (Mesoamerica)
Bolivia (South America)
Brazil (South America)
Canada (North America)
Chile (South America)
China (Asia)
Costa Rica (Mesoamerica)
Ecuador (South America)
El Salvador (Mesoamerica)
Ethiopia (Africa & Madagascar)
French Guiana (South America)
Guatemala (Mesoamerica)
Guyana (South America)
Honduras (Mesoamerica)
Mexico (Mesoamerica)
Cameroon (Africa & Madagascar)
Australia (Oceania)
Caribbean (Caribbean)
United States (North America)
Panama (Mesoamerica)
South Africa (Africa & Madagascar)
Peru (South America)
Nicaragua (Mesoamerica)
Suriname (South America)
Uruguay (South America)
New Zealand (Oceania)
Venezuela (South America)

Arundo egmontiana Roem. & Schult.:
Falkland Isl (Oceania)

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: Phragmites australis is found on every continent except Antarctica and may have the widest distribution of any flowering plant (Tucker 1990). It is common in and near freshwater, brackish and alkaline wetlands in the temperate zones world-wide. It may also be found in some tropical wetlands but is absent from the Amazon Basin and central Africa. It is widespread in the United states, typically growing in marshes, swamps, fens, and prairie potholes, usually inhabiting the marsh-upland interface where it may form continuous belts (Roman et al. 1984).

Because Phragmites has invaded and formed near-monotypic stands in some North American wetlands only in recent decades there has been some debate as to whether it is indigenous to this continent or not. Convincing evidence that it was here long before European contact is now available from at least two sources. Niering and Warren (1977) found remains of Phragmites in cores of 3000 year old peat from tidal marshes in Connecticut. Identifiable Phragmites remains dating from 600 to 900 A.D. and constituting parts of a twined mat and other woven objects were found during archaeological investigations of Anasazi sites in southwestern Colorado (Kane & Gross 1986; Breternitz et al. 1986).

There is some suspicion that although the species itself is indigenous to North America, new, more invasive genotype(s) were introduced from the Old World (Metzler and Rosza 1987). Hauber et al. (1991) found that invasive Phragmites populations in the Mississippi River Delta differed genetically from a more stable population near New Orleans. They also examined populations elsewhere on the Gulf coast, from extreme southern Texas to the Florida panhandle, and found no genetic differences between those populations and the one near New Orleans (Hauber, pers. comm. 1992). This increased their suspicion that the invasive biotypes were introduced to the Delta from somewhere outside the Gulf relatively recently.

Phragmites is frequently regarded as an aggressive, unwanted invader in the East and Upper Midwest. It has also earned this reputation in the Mississippi River Delta of southern Louisiana, where over the last 50 years, it has displaced species that provided valuable forage for wildlife, particularly migratory waterfowl (Hauber 1991). In other parts of coastal Louisiana, however, it is feared that Phragmites is declining as a result of increasing saltwater intrusion in the brackish marshes it occupies. Phragmites is apparently decreasing in Texas as well due to invasion of its habitat by the alien grass Arundo donax (Poole, pers. comm. 1985). Similarly, Phragmites is present in the Pacific states but is not regarded as a problem there. In fact, throughout the western U.S. there is some concern over decreases in the species' habitat and losses of populations.

Found in appropriate habitats throughout Britain, and is particularly common in the south-east (2). Although the distribution of this species seems to be stable, there have been local losses (4). The common reed has a very broad global range; it is found in all parts of the world except for some tropical areas (3).

Distribution: Pakistan (Punjab & Kashmir); temperate regions of both hemispheres in the Old World and the New.

Widespread in temperate regions, N.W. India, Nepal.

Widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.

Widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.

Giant Reed occurs occasionally in central and northern Illinois, while in the southern part of the state it is uncommon. This species is native to Illinois and other parts of North America; it also occurs in Eurasia, Africa, and Australia. Habitats include edges of floodplain forests, swamps, wet prairies, marshes, edges and shallow water of ponds and rivers, large drainage ditches, edges of poorly drained fields, and wet areas along beaches. In some of these habitats, Giant Reed can become the dominant wetland plant.

Plants with short, convolute, pungent leaf-blades and sheaths less than 3 cm long have been separated as var. stenophylla (Boiss.) Bor. Clayton (1967), however, has pointed out that shoots displaying this habit can occasionally be found growing from normal plants of both this species and Phragmites karka, and for this reason the variety is hardly worthy of recognition.

Common or Ditch Reed is found on limestone slopes in open forest in the mountains, margins of lakes and ponds and in shallow water in the plains.

Perennials, Aquatic, leaves emergent, Terrestrial, not aquatic, Rhizomes present, Rhizome elongate, creeping, stems distant, Stems nodes swollen or brittle, Stems erect or ascending, Stems terete, round in cross section, or polygonal, Stems branching above base or distally at nodes, Stem internodes hollow, Stems with inflorescence 1-2 m tall, Stems with inflorescence 2-6 m tall, Stems, culms, or scapes exceeding basal leaves, Leaves mostly cauline, Leaves conspicuously 2-ranked, distichous, Leaves sheathing at base, Leaf sheath mostly open, or loose, Leaf sheath smooth, glabrous, Leaf sheath and blade differentiated, Leaf blades disarticulating from sheath, deciduous at ligule, Leaf blades linear, Leaf blades lanceolate, Leaf blades 1-2 cm wide, Leaf blades 2 or more cm wide, Leaf blades mostly flat, Leaf blades mostly glabrous, Ligule present, Ligule a fringed, ciliate, or lobed membrane, Inflorescence terminal, Inflorescence an open panicle, openly paniculate, branches spreading, Inflorescence solitary, with 1 spike, fascicle, glomerule, head, or cluster per stem or culm, Inflorescence branches more than 10 to numerous, Peduncle or rachis scabrous or pubescent, often with long hairs, Flowers bisexual, Spikelets pedicellate, Spikelets laterally compressed, Spikelet less than 3 mm wide, Spikelets with 2 florets, Spikelets with 3-7 florets, Spikelets with 8-40 florets, Spi kelets solitary at rachis nodes, Spikelets all alike and fertille, Spikelets bisexual, Spikelets disarticulating above the glumes, glumes persistent, Spikelets disarticulating beneath or between the florets, Spikelets conspicuously hairy , Rachilla or pedicel hairy, Glumes present, empty bracts, Glumes 2 clearly present, Glumes distinctly unequal, Glumes shorter than adjacent lemma, Glumes 3 nerved, Glumes 4-7 nerved, Lemma similar in texture to glumes, Lemma 3 nerved, Lemma glabrous, Lemma apex acute or acuminate, Lemma awnless, Lemma margins inrolled, tightly covering palea and caryopsis, Lemma straight, Palea present, well developed, Palea membranous, hyaline, Palea shorter than lemma, Stamens 3, Styles 2-fid, deeply 2-branched, Stigmas 2, Fruit - caryopsis.

Perennial reed, with creeping rhizomes. Culms erect, 1.5-3(6) m high. Leaf-blades 20-60 cm (or more) long and 8-32 mm wide, glabrous, smooth beneath, the tips filiform and flexuous (sometimes stiff and pungent, see below). Panicle 20-30(-50) cm long and 6-10(-15) cm wide, the lowest node usually few-branched, some of the branches bearing spikelets nearly to their base. Spikelets 12-18 mm long, the rhachilla-hairs 6-10 mm long, copious, silky; lower glume 3-4.5 mm long; upper glume lanceolate, 5-9 mm long, sharply acute, usually apiculate; lowest lemma linear lanceolate to linear-oblong, 8-15 mm long; fertile lemmas very narrowly lanceolate, 9-13 mm long.

This is an extremely polymorphic, cosmopolitan reed with numerous chromosomal variants and ecotypes. Plants from the high Himalayas sometimes form short, leafy tufts with strongly distichous, short, pungent leaf blades. Similar variants occur elsewhere in the world in extreme conditions.

Robust perennial from an extensive creeping rhizome; overground stolons sometimes present, straight, nodes glabrous. Culms up to 2 m or more tall, ca. 6 mm in diam., usually farinose below nodes, nodes glabrous or pubescent. Leaf sheaths light green, glabrous or thinly hairy; leaf blades usually drooping, up to 50 × 1–3 cm, smooth or margins scabrous, tapering to a filiform apex; ligule a minute membranous rim, ciliate, hairs 0.2–0.6 mm. Panicle 20–50 × ca. 10 cm, branches of lowermost whorl usually spiculate to base, densely hirsute at insertion; pedicels 2–4 mm, glabrous or pilose only at base. Spikelets 10–18 mm, florets 2–5; glumes acute, lower glume up to 1/2 length of lowest lemma, 3–5 mm, upper glume 6–9 mm; lowest lemma linear-lanceolate, 8–15 mm; floret callus with hairs equal to lemma; bisexual lemmas very narrowly lanceolate, 9–16 mm, apex long attenuate. Fl. and fr. Jul–Nov. 2n = 36, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 84, 96, 120.

3000-3600 m

Tall reed. Rhizome conspicuous. Ligule 1 mm long, upper margin fimbriate, blade 2 cm wide. Panicle large, open. Spikelets usually 3-flowered, 14 mm long; glumes lanceolate, chartaceous, 3-nerved, sometimes tessellate-nerved; the lower 4 mm long; lemma 7-10 mm long, chartaceous, 3-nerved, lanceolate, glabrous; callus elongated with silky hairs; palea 2.5-4 mm long, 2-keeled, margins minutely ciliate, apex truncate.

Tall reed. Rhizome conspicuous. Ligule 1 mm long, upper margin fimbriate, blade 2 cm wide. Panicle large, open. Spikelets usually 3-flowered, 14 mm long; glumes lanceolate, chartaceous, 3-nerved, sometimes tessellate-nerved; the lower 4 mm long; lemma 7-10 mm long, chartaceous, 3-nerved, lanceolate, glabrous; callus elongated with silky hairs; palea 2.5-4 mm long, 2-keeled, margins minutely ciliate, apex truncate.

Arundo australis Cavanilles, Anales Hist. Nat. 1: 100. 1799; A. phragmites Linnaeus; Phragmites communis Trinius.

Members of the genus Phragmites are superficially similar to Arundo. Sterile specimens of P. australis are sometimes misidentified as Arundo donax, a grass introduced to North America from Asia and now troublesome in natural areas, especially in California. The genera can be distinguished when in flower because the glumes of Phragmites are glabrous while those of Arundo are covered with soft, whitish hairs 6-8 mm long. In addition, the glumes are much shorter than the lemmas in Phragmites.

Isosyntype for Phragmites berlandieri E. Fourn.
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany
Verification Degree: Card file verified by examination of alleged type specimen; Status verified from secondary sources
Preparation: Pressed specimen
Collector(s): T. Drummond
Year Collected: 1835
Locality: Texas, United States, North America

Isosyntype for Phragmites berlandieri E. Fourn.
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany
Verification Degree: Card file verified by examination of alleged type specimen; Status verified from secondary sources
Preparation: Pressed specimen
Collector(s): T. Drummond
Locality: Texas, United States, North America

Isolectotype for Phragmites berlandieri E. Fourn.
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany
Verification Degree: Card file verified by examination of alleged type specimen; Status verified from secondary sources
Preparation: Pressed specimen
Collector(s): J. L. Berlandier
Year Collected: 1828
Locality: Entre Laredo et Bejar., Texas, United States, North America
Elevation (m): 2 to 3

Isosyntype for Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany
Collector(s): -. Karwinsky
Locality: San Ramon, Durango, Mexico, North America

Depth range based on 8 specimens in 1 taxon.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 1.5 - 1.5
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: Phragmites is especially common in alkaline and brackish (slightly saline) environments (Haslam 1972, 1971b), and can also thrive in highly acidic wetlands (Rawinski, pers. comm. 1985). However, Phragmites does not require, nor even prefer these habitats to freshwater areas. Its growth is greater in fresh water but it may be outcompeted in these areas by other species that cannot tolerate brackish, alkaline or acidic waters. It is often found in association with other wetland plants including species from the following genera: Spartina, Carex, Nymphaea, Typha, Glyceria, Juncus, Myrica, Triglochin, Calamagrostis, Galium, and Phalaris (Howard et al. 1978).

Phragmites occurs in disturbed areas as well as pristine sites. It is especially common along railroad tracks, roadside ditches, and piles of dredge spoil, wherever even slight depressions hold water (Ricciuti 1983). Penko (pers. comm. 1993) has observed stunted Phragmites growing on acidic tailings (Ph 2.9) from an abandoned copper mine in Vermont. Various types of human manipulation and/or disturbance are thought to promote Phragmites (Roman et al. 1984). For example, restriction of the tidal inundation of a marsh may result in a lowering of the water table, which may in turn favor Phragmites. Likewise, sedimentation may promote the spread of Phragmites by elevating a marsh's substrate surface and effectively reducing the frequency of tidal inundation (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

A number of explanations have been proposed to account for the recent dramatic increases in Phragmites populations in the northeastern and Great Lakes States. As noted above, habitat manipulations and disturbances caused by humans are thought to have a role. In some areas Phragmites may also have been promoted by the increases in soil salinity which result when de- icing salt washes off roads and into nearby ditches and wetlands (McNabb and Batterson 1991). On the other hand, bare patches of road sand washed into ditches and wetlands may be of greater importance. Phragmites seeds are shed from November through January and so may be among the first propagules to reach these sites. If the seeds germinate and become established the young plants will usually persist for at least two years in a small, rather inconspicuous stage, resembling many other grasses. Later, perhaps after the input of nutrients, they may take off and assume the tall growth form that makes the species easily identifiable . Increases in soil nutrient concentrations, may come from runoff from farms and urban areas. It has also been suggested increases in nutrient concentrations, especially nitrates, are primarily responsible for increases in Phragmites populations. Ironically, eutrophication and increases in nitrate levels are sometimes blamed for the decline of Phragmites populations in Europe (Den Hartog et al. 1989).

 Forms extensive stands on mud or in shallow water in marshes, fens, bogs, and the edges of shallow lakes, salt marshes and estuaries.

This wetland species forms large beds on mud or in shallow water (2); it is found in swamps and fens, ditches, at the edges of lakes, ponds, and rivers as well as in coastal lagoons, brackish swamps, estuaries and where freshwater seeps over sea-cliffs (4). This reed is the dominant species in reedbeds, a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) (2).

Moist places along river banks and lake margins, forming large colonies. Throughout China [cosmopolitan].

Giant Reed occurs occasionally in central and northern Illinois, while in the southern part of the state it is uncommon. This species is native to Illinois and other parts of North America; it also occurs in Eurasia, Africa, and Australia. Habitats include edges of floodplain forests, swamps, wet prairies, marshes, edges and shallow water of ponds and rivers, large drainage ditches, edges of poorly drained fields, and wet areas along beaches. In some of these habitats, Giant Reed can become the dominant wetland plant.

Growth starts in February in some locations. Foliage stays green until frost. New shoots grow from buds at nodes of old, stems, stolons, and rhizomes. It grows in marshes and swamps, on banks of streams and lakes, and around springs. It grows best in firm mineral clays and tolerates moderate salinity. It does best if water level fluctuates from 6 inches below soil surface to 6 inches above. Common reed is often codominant with big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides) on the gulf coast marsh rangelands.

Known Pests: APHIDS

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial pseudothecium of Acanthophiobolus helicosporus is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-10

Foodplant / saprobe
Acremonium anamorph of Acremonium alternatum is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis

Plant / resting place / on
ovum of Agromyza hendeli may be found on leaf of Phragmites australis
Other: sole host/prey

Plant / resting place / on
puparium of Agromyza phragmitidis may be found on leaf (near end of mine) of Phragmites australis
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Albotricha acutipila is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 4-8
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Albotricha albotestacea is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 2-8

Plant / epiphyte
fruitbody of Aleurodiscus phragmitis grows on dead, standing stem of Phragmites australis

Plant / resting place / on
female of Anaphothrips badius may be found on live Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3,7-9

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, clypeate perithecium of Anthostomella punctulata is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 2-10

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, clypeate perithecium of Anthostomella tomicoides is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Arthrinium dematiaceous anamorph of Apiospora montagnei is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Arthrinium dematiaceous anamorph of Arthrinium phaeospermum is saprobic on dead culm of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: esp. 7-8
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / spot causer
pycnidium of Actinothyrium coelomycetous anamorph of Ascochyta leptospora causes spots on leaf of Phragmites australis

Plant / resting place / on
female of Baliothrips biformis may be found on live Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 7-8

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Belemnospora dematiaceous anamorph of Belemnospora verruculosa is saprobic on dead culm of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pseudothecium of Botryosphaeria festucae is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 6-8

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent pseudothecium of Buergenerula typhae is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Calameuta filiformis feeds within small stem of Phragmites australis
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent pycnidium of Camarosporium coelomycetous anamorph of Camarosporium feurichii is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-10

Plant / resting place / within
puparium of Cerodontha incisa may be found in leaf-mine of Phragmites australis

Plant / resting place / within
puparium of Cerodontha phragmitidis may be found in leaf-mine of Phragmites australis
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / miner
larva of Cerodontha phragmitophila mines live leaf of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / pathogen
Sphacelia anamorph of Claviceps purpurea infects and damages inflorescence of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 7

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Coprinopsis kubickae is saprobic on decayed leaves of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
subepidermal, aggregated, linearly stromatic conidioma of Cytoplacosphaeria coelomycetous anamorph of Cytoplacosphaeria rimosa is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / pathogen
Deightoniella dematiaceous anamorph of Deightoniella arundinacea infects and damages trampled, dark grey leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 4-10

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dendrothele sasae is saprobic on dead, standing stem of Phragmites australis

Plant / resting place / among
clustered, in groups of up to 10 cocoon of Donacia clavipes may be found among rhizome of Phragmites australis
Other: major host/prey

Plant / resting place / on
adult of Donacia simplex may be found on Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3-9(-11)

Foodplant / pathogen
Fusarium anamorph of Gibberella zeae infects and damages stem base of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / pathogen
superficial colony of Gyrothrix dematiaceous anamorph of Gyrothrix podosperma infects and damages dead leaf of Phragmites australis

Plant / resting place / on
Haplothrips hukkineni may be found on live Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pycnidium of Hendersonia coelomycetous anamorph of Hendersonia culmiseda is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 2-8

Foodplant / saprobe
Hendersonia coelomycetous anamorph of Hendersonia epicalamia is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis

Foodplant / sap sucker
small to large, densely aggregated colony of Hyalopterus pruni sucks sap of live leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 6-8

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Hymenoscyphus robustior is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 6-7
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Ischnodemus sabuleti agg. sucks sap of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, sometimes in rows pseudothecium of Keissleriella linearis is saprobic on dead, locally darkened stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Lachnum carneolum var. longisporum is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: (2-)6-8(-10)

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Lachnum controversum is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-10
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked apothecium of Lachnum palearum var. palearum is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3-8

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Lachnum tenuissimum is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-8

Foodplant / gall
larva of Lasioptera arundinis causes gall of stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
thyriothecium of Lichenopeltella nigroannulata is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / gall
larva of Lipara lucens causes gall of stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: summer
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
partly immersed, usually linearly arranged pseudothecium of Lophiostoma arundinis is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 10-5

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pseudothecium of Lophiostoma caudatum is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 1-4
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
mostly immersed, becoming partly erumpent to free pseudothecium of Lophiostoma semiliberum is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 12-4
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
pseudothecium of Lophiotrema grandispora is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
conidial anamorph of Lophodermium arundinaceum is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 11-3+
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Marasmius curreyi is saprobic on dead, decayed stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Marasmius limosus is saprobic on dead, decaying leaf of Phragmites australis
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / spot causer
black, globose then elongated pycnidium of Stagonospora coelomycetous anamorph of Massarina arundinacea causes spots on dead, dry culm of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Periconia dematiaceous anamorph of Massarina igniaria is saprobic on dry, scorched or burnt Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 8-12

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Tetraploa dematiaceous anamorph of Massarina tetraploa is saprobic on Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 1-12
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
pseudothecium of Massariosphaeria typhicola is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis

Foodplant / sap sucker
Metapolophium dirhodum sucks sap of live Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: summer

Foodplant / saprobe
conidioma of Microdiscula coelomycetous anamorph of Microdiscula phragmitis is saprobic on dead rhizome of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 6-11

Foodplant / saprobe
subiculate, sessile apothecium of Mollisia hydrophila is saprobic on dead, damp stem base of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 6-8

Foodplant / saprobe
sessile apothecium of Mollisia palustris is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3-9

Foodplant / saprobe
pycnothyrium of anamorph of Morenoina phragmitis is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 4-8

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena belliae is saprobic on moribund stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, linearly arranged pseudothecium of Mycosphaerella lineolata is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked, occasionally sessile sporodochium of Myrothecium dematiaceous anamorph of Myrothecium cinctum is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3-5
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked sporodochium of Myrothecium dematiaceous anamorph of Myrothecium masonii is saprobic on Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial, scattered on in small groups, thinly subiculate perithecium of Nectria ellisii is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-12

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Niptera excelsior is saprobic on dead, wet stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 10-5

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Niptera lacustris is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 10

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Niptera pulla is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3-5

Foodplant / feeds on
Notaris bimaculatus feeds on stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Odacantha melanura feeds on Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Periconia dematiaceous anamorph of Periconia atra is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 4-9

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Periconia dematiaceous anamorph of Periconia digitata is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: mainly winter

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Periconia dematiaceous anamorph of Periconia glyceriicola is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 12-4

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Periconia dematiaceous anamorph of Periconia hispidula is saprobic on dry, dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Periconia dematiaceous anamorph of Periconia minutissima is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent, subsessile apothecium of Perrotia distincta is saprobic on dead, standing stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 10-11

Foodplant / saprobe
pseudothecium of Phaeosphaeria albopunctata is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, initially immersed pseudothecium of Phaeosphaeria fuckelii is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: spring, summer

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, initially immersed pseudothecium of Phaeosphaeria graminis is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: spring, summer
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, initially immersed pseudothecium of Phaeosphaeria herpotrichoides is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: spring, summer

Foodplant / saprobe
pycnidium of Hendersonia coelomycetous anamorph of Phaeosphaeria vagans is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pycnidium of Phoma coelomycetous anamorph of Phoma arundinacea is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 2-10

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed perithecium of Phomatospora berkeleyi is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 2-9

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, scattered or gregarious apothecium of Phragmiticola rhopalospermum is saprobic on dead culm of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / open feeder
adult of Plateumaris braccata grazes on young leaf shoot of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-7(-10)
Other: sole host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Psathyrella typhae is saprobic on Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, immersed pycnidium of Pseudorobillarda coelomycetous anamorph of Pseudorobillarda phragmitis is saprobic on wet, dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 7

Foodplant / spot causer
immersed, crowded or in rows pycnidium of Pseudoseptoria coelomycetous anamorph of Pseudoseptoria donacis causes spots on sheath of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-7

Foodplant / parasite
long, narrow telium of Puccinia magnusiana parasitises live leaf sheath of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 7-5

Foodplant / parasite
telium of Puccinia phragmitis parasitises live leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 7-5

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Resinomycena saccharifera is saprobic on dead, decayed debris of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, covered the piercing, black pycnidium of Rhabdospora coelomycetous anamorph of Rhabdospora curva is saprobic on dead, dry culm of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 9

Foodplant / sap sucker
Rhopalosiphum insertum sucks sap of live Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: summer

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked, erumpent apothecium of Rutstroemia lindaviana is saprobic on dead, very rotting, fallen, locally blackened stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-9

Foodplant / saprobe
subepidermal, but splitting epidermis longitudinally stroma of Scirrhia rimosa is saprobic on dead leaf sheath of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / spot causer
gregarious, immersed pycnidium of Septoria coelomycetous anamorph of Septoria arundinacea causes spots on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: summer

Foodplant / saprobe
Sirozythiella coelomycetous anamorph of Sirozythiella sydowiana is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Sistotrema subtrigonospermum is saprobic on dead, decayed stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pycnidium of Stagonospora coelomycetous anamorph of Stagonospora cylindrica is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 9

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed then erumpent, black, shining pycnidium of Stagonospora coelomycetous anamorph of Stagonospora elegans is saprobic on dead, submerged stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 4-8

Foodplant / saprobe
pycnidium of Stagonospora coelomycetous anamorph of Stagonospora hysterioides is saprobic on dead Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
thinly subiculate apothecium of Tapesia evilescens is saprobic on dead stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 4-8

Foodplant / saprobe
extensively subiculate apothecium of Tapesia kneiffii is saprobic on dead stem base of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 5-8

Plant / resting place / on
fruitbody of Tomentella ellisii may be found on dead, decayed debris of Phragmites australis
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Helicosporium anamorph of Tubeufia paludosa is saprobic on dead leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 3-11

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Typhula capitata is saprobic on dead, decayed leaf of Phragmites australis
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Typhula subhyalina is saprobic on dying stem of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / parasite
embedded sorus of Ustilago grandis parasitises live culm of Phragmites australis

Foodplant / saprobe
embedded pseudothecium of Wettsteinina niesslii is saprobic on dead, wet stem of Phragmites australis
Remarks: season: 2

The caterpillars of Poanes viator (Broad-Winged Skipper) feed on the Giant Reed and other wetland grasses. This skipper can be found in wetland areas of northern Illinois. Birds and mammals don't use Giant Reed as a food plant to any significant degree. However, the tall coarse foliage does provide cover for many species of wetland birds and other animals.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Perhaps the most widespread plant species on Earth, with numerous large, presumably native stands on all continents except Antarctica. In addition, at least in North America, novel (Eurasian?) genotypes have become widely established along the Atlantic Coast and in scattered inland sites where Phragmites was not previously known historically (Kristin Saltonstall, presentation to Botanical Society of Washington, 5 June 2001).

Salinity and depth to the water table are among the factors which control the distribution and performance of Phragmites. Maximum salinity tolerances vary from population to population; reported maxima range from 12 ppt (1.2%) in Britain to 29 ppt in New York state to 40 ppt on the Red Sea coast (Hocking et al. 1983). Dense stands normally lose more water through evapotranspiration than is supplied by rain (Haslam 1970). However, rhizomes can reach down almost 2 meters below ground, their roots penetrating even deeper, allowing the plant to reach low lying ground water (Haslam 1970). Killing frosts may knock the plants back temporarily but can ultimately increase stand densities by stimulating bud development (Haslam 1968).

Phragmites has a low tolerance for wave and current action which can break its culms (vertical stems) and impede bud formation in the rhizomes (Haslam 1970). It can survive, and in fact thrive, in stagnant waters where the sediments are poorly aerated at best (Haslam 1970). Air spaces in the above-ground stems and in the rhizomes themselves assure the underground parts of the plant with a relatively fresh supply of air. This characteristic and the species' salinity tolerance allow it to grow where few others can survive (Haslam 1970). In addition the build up of litter from the aerial shoots within stands prevents or discourages other species from germinating and becoming established (Haslam 1971a). The rhizomes and adventitious roots themselves form dense mats that further discourage competitors. These characteristics are what enable Phragmites to spread, push other species out and form monotypic stands.

Such stands may alter the wetlands they colonize, eliminating habitat for valued animal species. On the other hand, the abundant cover of litter in Phragmites stands may provide habitat for some small mammals, insects and reptiles. The aerial stems provide nesting sites for several species of birds, and Song Sparrows have been seen eating Phragmites' seeds (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). Muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) use Phragmites for emergency cover when low lying marshes are swept by storm tides and for food when better habitats are overpopulated (Lynch et al. 1947).

Studies conducted in Europe indicate that gall-forming and stem- boring insects may significantly reduce growth of Phragmites (Durska 1970; Pokorny 1971). Skuhravy (1978) estimated that roughly one-third of the stems in a stand may be damaged reducing stand productivity by 10-20%. Mook and van der Toorn (1982) found yields were reduced by 25 to 60% in stands heavily infested with lepidopteran stem- or rhizome-borers. Hayden (1947) suggested that aphids (Hyalopterus pruni) heavily damaged a Phragmites stand in Iowa. On the other hand work in Europe by Pintera (1971) indicated that although high densities of aphids may bring about reductions in Phragmites shoot height and leaf area they had little effect on shoot weight. Like other emergent macrophytes, Phragmites has tough leaves and appears to suffer little grazing by leaf-chewing insects (Penko 1985).

As mentioned above, there is great concern about recent declines in Phragmites in Europe where the species is still used for thatch. In fact, the journal Aquatic Botany devoted an entire issue (volume 35 no.1, September 1989) to this subject. Factors believed responsible for the declines include habitat destruction and manipulation of hydrologic regimes by humans, grazing, sedimentation and decreased water quality (eutrophication) (Ostendorp 1989).

Detailed reviews of the ecology and physiological ecology of Phragmites are provided by Haslam (1972; 1973) and Hocking et al. (1983) and an extensive bibliography is provided by van der Merff et al. (1987).

Fl. & Fr. Per.: July-October.

Stems move air: Phragmites australis
 

Dead stems of Phragmites australis move air to shoot and root meristems by use of differential air pressure.

   
  "Through flow can also occur in dormant plants with persistent, standing litter. This has been reported for Phragmites australis. Differences in wind speed at the top and near the bottom in the canopy create a differential internal pressure between tall and short dead shoots. The lower air pressure in taller shoots draws air into the shorter dead shoots, down into the rhizomes, and up the taller dead shoots (Fig. 4.8). In the temperate zone in the early spring, this may be an important mechanism for Phragmites to get oxygen to shoot and root meristems."

From Fig. 4.8: "A. Differential air pressure caused by wind blowing across dead culms sucks air into the lower culms through the rhizomes and into the taller culms. B. Pressurization of new culms due to a build up of vapour pressure or higher temperatures causes mass flow of gasses [sic] down the culms into the rhizome and up into more porous older culms. The movement of oxygen from the rhizomes into the roots and out of the roots into the soil is due to diffusion. (Redrawn from Colmer 2003)" (van der Valk 2006: 64-65)


"Internal transport of gases is crucial for vascular plants inhabiting aquatic, wetland or flood-prone environments. Diffusivity of gases in water is approximately 10 000 times slower than in air; thus direct exchange of gases between submerged tissues and the environment is strongly impeded. Aerenchyma provides a low-resistance internal pathway for gas transport between shoot and root extremities. By this pathway, O2 is supplied to the roots and rhizosphere, while CO2, ethylene, and methane move from the soil to the shoots and atmosphere. Diffusion is the mechanism by which gases move within roots of all plant species, but significant pressurized through-flow occurs in stems and rhizomes of several emergent and floating-leaved wetland plants. Through-flows can raise O2 concentrations in the rhizomes close to ambient levels. In general, rates of flow are determined by plant characteristics such as capacity to generate positive pressures in shoot tissues, and resistance to flow in the aerenchyma, as well as environmental conditions affecting leaf-to-air gradients in humidity and temperature. O2 diffusion in roots is influenced by anatomical, morphological and physiological characteristics, and environmental conditions. Roots of many (but not all) wetland species contain large volumes of aerenchyma (e.g. root porosity can reach 55%), while a barrier impermeable to radial O2 loss (ROL) often occurs in basal zones. These traits act synergistically to enhance the amount of O2 diffusing to the root apex and enable the development of an aerobic rhizosphere around the root tip, which enhances root penetration into anaerobic substrates. The barrier to ROL in roots of some species is induced by growth in stagnant conditions, whereas it is constitutive in others. An inducible change in the resistance to O2 across the hypodermislexodermis is hypothesized to be of adaptive significance to plants inhabiting transiently waterlogged soils. Knowledge on the anatomical basis of the barrier to ROL in various species is scant. Nevertheless, it has been suggested that the barrier may also impede influx of: (i) soilderived gases, such as CO2, methane, and ethylene; (ii) potentially toxic substances (e.g. reduced metal ions) often present in waterlogged soils; and (iii) nutrients and water. Lateral roots, that remain permeable to O2, may be the main surface for exchange of substances between the roots and rhizosphere in wetland species. Further work is required to determine whether diversity in structure and function in roots of wetland species can be related to various niche habitats. (Colmer 2003:17)
  Learn more about this functional adaptation.

Collection Sites: world map showing specimen collection locations for Phragmites australis

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD) Stats
                                                             

Specimen Records:	14
Specimens with Sequences:	26
Specimens with Barcodes:	23
Public Records:	3
Species:	1
Species With Barcodes:	1

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 34
Species: 55
Species With Barcodes: 1

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Nearly cosmopolitan as a presumably native plant in marshes and other wetland habitats on all continents except Antarctica. Additionally, at least in North America, non-native genotypes may have become established in areas not previously supporting Phragmites.

Common and widespread (4). Reedbeds are a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) (6).

Considered a noxious weed in several states. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Global Short Term Trend: Increase of 10 to >25%

Comments: Increasing overall in North America, although decreasing at some sites, and some historically known genotypes of New England now possibly extirpated by introduction of more vigorous alien genotypes there (Saltonstall, unpubl., 2001).

Comments: IMPACTS (THREATS POSED BY THIS SPECIES)

Phragmites can be regarded as a stable, natural component of a wetland community if the habitat is pristine and the population does not appear to be expanding. Many native populations of Phragmites are "benign" and pose little or no threat to other species and should be left intact. Examples of areas with stable, native populations include sea-level fens in Delaware and Virginia and along Mattagota Stream in Maine (Rawinski 1985, pers. comm. 1992). In Europe, a healthy reed belt is defined as a "homogeneous, dense or sparse stand with no gaps in its inner parts, with an evenly formed lakeside borderline without aisles, shaping a uniform fringe or large lobes, stalk length decreasing gradually at the lakeside border, but all stalks of one stand of similar height; at the landside edge the reeds are replaced by sedge or woodland communities or by unfertilized grasslands" (Ostendorp 1989).

Stable populations may be difficult to distinguish from invasive populations, but one should examine such factors as site disturbance and the earliest collection dates of the species to arrive at a determination. If available, old and recent aerial photos can be compared to determine whether stands in a given area are expanding or not (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

Phragmites is a problem when and where stands appear to be spreading while other species typical the of the community are diminishing. Disturbances or stresses such as pollution, alteration of the natural hydrologic regime, dredging, and increased sedimentation favor invasion and continued spread of Phragmites (Roman et al. 1984). Other factors that may have favored recent invasion and spread of Phragmites include increases in soil salinity (from fresh to brackish) and/or nutrient concentrations, especially nitrate, and the introduction of a more invasive genotype(s) from the Old World (McNabb and Batterson 1991; Metzler and Rosza 1987, see GLOBAL RANGE section for further discussion).

Michael Lefor asserts that one reason for the general spread of Phragmites has been the destabilization of the landscape (pers. comm. 1993). In urban landscapes water is apt to collect in larger volumes and pass through more quickly (flashily) than formerly. This tends to destabilize substrates leaving bare soil open for colonization. Watersheds throughout eastern North America are flashier due to the proliferation of paved surfaces, lawns and roofs and the fact that upstream wetlands are largely filled with post-settlement/post agricultural sediments from initial land-clearing operations.

Many Atlantic coast wetland systems have been invaded by Phragmites as a result of tidal restrictions imposed by roads, water impoundments, dikes and tide gates. Tide gates have been installed in order to drain marshes to harvest salt hay, to control mosquito breeding and, most recently, to protect coastal development from flooding during storms. This alteration of marsh systems may favor Phragmites invasion by reducing tidal action and soil water salinity and lowering water tables.

Phragmites invasions may threaten wildlife because they alter the structure and function (wildlife support) of relatively diverse Spartina marshes (Roman et al. 1984). This is a problem on many of the eastern coastal National Fish and Wildlife Refuges including: Brigantine in NJ; Prime Hook and Bombay Hook in DE; Tinicum in PA; Chincoteague in VA; and Trustom Pond in RI.

Plant species and communities threatened by Phragmites are listed in the Monitoring section. Some of these instances are described below:

1. Massachusetts, a brackish pondlet near Horseneck Beach supports the state rare plant Myriophyllum pinnatum (Walter) BSP, which Phragmites is threatening by reducing the available open water and shading aquatic vegetation (Sorrie, pers. comm. 1985).

2. Maryland, at Nassawango Creek, a rare coastal plain peatland community is threatened by Phragmites (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

3. Ohio, at the Arcola Creek wetland, phragmites is threatening the state endangered plant Carex aquatilis Wahlenb. (Young, pers. comm. 1985).

Phragmites invasions also increase the potential for marsh fires during the winter when the above ground portions of the plant die and dry out (Reimer 1973). Dense congregations of redwing blackbirds, which nest in Phragmites stands preferentially, increase chances of airplane accidents nearby. The monitoring and control of mosquito breeding is nearly impossible in dense Phragmites stands (Hellings and Gallagher 1992). In addition, Phragmites invasions can also have adverse aesthetic impacts. In Boston's Back Bay Fens, dense stands have obscured vistas intended by the park's designer, Frederick Law Olmstead (Penko, pers. comm. 1993).

As noted above Phragmites is not considered a threat in the West or most areas in the Gulf states.

In Britain, reedbeds are one of the most important habitats for birds; a number of extremely rare birds are entirely dependent on the habitat, including the bittern (Botaurus stellaris), the marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and the bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus). Unfortunately the total area of reedbeds is small, water abstraction, resulting in a lowering of the water table, as well as conversion to agricultural land have further reduced the area of reedbeds (6). Unsuitable management or neglect can result in a reedbed drying out; if the reeds are not cut regularly, the habitat will be invaded by willow scrub and will eventually become a wet woodland (5). Pollution of freshwater inputs into reedbeds can lead to the death of reeds, and siltation can cause drying out. Furthermore, many of the largest and most important reedbeds in Britain are on the eastern coast, and are threatened by sea-level rise (6).

Restoration Potential: Areas that have been invaded by Phragmites have excellent potential for recovery. Management programs have proven that phragmites can be controlled, and natural vegetation will return. However, monitoring is imperative because Phragmites tends to reinvade and control techniques may need to be applied several times or, perhaps, in perpetuity. It is also important to note that some areas have been so heavily manipulated and degraded that it may be impossible to eliminate Phragmites from them. For example, it may be especially difficult to control Phragmites in freshwater impoundments that were previously salt marshes.

Management Requirements: Invasive populations of Phragmites must be managed in order to protect rare plants that it might outcompete, valued animals whose habitat it might dominate and degrade, and healthy ecosystems that it might greatly alter.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: Biological control does not appear to be an option at this time. No organisms which significantly damage Phragmites australis but do not feed on other plant species have been identified. In addition, some of the arthropods that feed on Phragmites are killed by winter fires and thus would likely be eliminated from the systems where prescribed fires are used. Coots, nutria, and muskrats may feed on Phragmites but appear to have limited impacts on its populations (Cross and Fleming 1989).

BURNING: Prescribed burning has

BURNING: Prescribed burning does not reduce the growing ability of Phragmites unless root burn occurs. Root burn seldom occurs, however, because the rhizomes are usually covered by a layer of soil, mud and/or water. Fires in Phragmites stands are dangerous because this species can cause spot-fires over 100 feet away (Beall 1984). Burning does remove accumulated Phragmites leaf litter, giving the seeds of other species area to germinate.

CHEMICAL: Rodeo TM, a water solution of the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate is commonly used for Phragmites control. This herbicide is not, however, selective and will kill grasses and broadleaved plants alike. Toxicity tests indicate that it is virtually non-toxic to all aquatic animals tested. It should be noted that many of these tests were performed by or for Monsanto, the company which manufactures Rodeo.

Rodeo must be mixed with water and a surfactant which allows it to stick to and subsequently be absorbed by the plant (Beall 1984). Instructions for application are on the Rodeo label.

Application of Rodeo must take place after the tasseling stage when the plant is supplying nutrients to the rhizome.

CUTTING: Cutting has been used successfully to control phragmites. Since it is a grass, cutting several times during a season, at the wrong times, may increase stand density (Osterbrock 1984). However, if cut just before the end of July, most of the food reserves produced that season are removed with the aerial portion of the plant, reducing the plant's vigor. This regime may eliminate a colony if carried out annually for several years. Care must be taken to remove cut shoots to prevent their sprouting and forming stolons (Osterbrock 1984).

GRAZING, DREDGING, AND DRAINING: Grazing, dredging, and draining are other methods that have often been used to reduce stand vigor (Howard, Rhodes and Simmers 1978). However, draining and dredging are not appropriate for use on most preserves (Osterbrock, 1984).

Grazing may trample the rhizomes and reduce vigor but the results are limited (Cross and Fleming 1989). Van Deursen and Drost (1990) found that cattle consumed 67-98% of above-ground biomass; in a four year study, they found that reed populations may reach new equilibria under grazing regimes.

MANIPULATION OF WATER LEVEL AND SALINITY: Reintroduced tidal action and salinity can reduce Phragmites vigor and restore the community's integrity.

MOWING, DISKING, AND PULLING: Beall (1984) discourages mowing and disking. Mowing only affects the above ground portion of the plant, so mowing would have to occur annually. To remove the rhizome, disking could be employed. However, discing could potentially result in an increase of Phragmites since pieces of the rhizome can produce new plants. Cross and Fleming (1989) describe successful mowing regimes of several year duration during the summer (August and September) and disking in summer or fall.

Management Programs: BURNING: Prescribed burning has been used with success after chemical treatment at The Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge, NJ (Beall 1984) and in Delaware (Lehman, pers. comm. 1992). Occasional burning has been used in Delaware in conjunction with intensive spraying and water level management. This helps remove old canes and allows other vegetation to grow (Daly, pers. comm. 1991).

According to Cross and Fleming (1989), late summer burns may be effective, but winter and spring burning may in fact increase the densities of spring crops.

CHEMICAL: At the Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge, Rodeo was applied aerially after the plants tasseled in late August. The application resulted in a 90% success. The following February, a fast moving prescribed burn was carried out to remove litter, exposing the seed bed for re-establishment of marsh vegetation.

Aerial spraying has been used since 1983 in many Delaware state wildlife refuges (Lehman, pers. comm. 1992). Using Rodeo, the state sprays freshwater and brackish impoundments, brackish marshes, and salt marshes from early September to early October; this is combined with winter burns between the first and second year of spraying.

In more fragile situations where Phragmites is threatening a rare plant or community, aerial spray techniques are inappropriate because such large-scale application could kill the community that the entire operation was designed to protect. Glyphosate can be applied to specific plants and areas by hand with a backpack sprayer. Wayne Klockner of The Nature Conservancy's Maryland Field Office has been successful in eliminating most Phragmites at the Nassawango preserve by applying glyphosate by hand with a backpack sprayer (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

CUTTING: In the Arcola Creek Preserve in Ohio, cutting reduced the vigor of the Phragmites colony.

Cutting an area 25' x 25' to waist height with a hedge clippers and the applying one drop of Roundup with a syringe with a large needle into the top of the plant in a brackish- freshwater marsh was begun in Constitution Marsh in New York in 1991 (Keene, pers. comm. 1991). Initial results indicate 90% eradication.

MANIPULATION OF WATER LEVEL AND SALINITY: A self-regulating tide gate which reintroduced saltwater tidal action was used to help restore a diked marsh in Fairfield, Connecticut (Thomas Steinke pers. comm. 1992; Bongiorno et al. 1984); plant density declined dramatically the following year.

Flooding can be used to control Phragmites when 3 feet of water covers the rhizome for an extended period during the growing season, usually four months (Beall 1984). However, many areas can not be flooded to such depths. Furthermore, flooding could destroy the communities or plants targeted for protection.

Open Marsh Water Management (OMWM) has been used as a method to control Phragmites (Niniviaggi, pers. comm. 1991; Rozsa, pers. comm. 1992).

Monitoring Programs: The programs listed below used various methods to control Phragmites populations and are monitoring the success of these actions including the degree of recovery of native species and the longevity of the control.

CONNECTICUT Monitoring phragmites reduction and replacement vegetation after reintroducing tidal flow, using transects and line intercept. Contact: Charles T. Roman, William Niering, Scott Warren Dept of Botany Connecticut College New London, CT 06320

Monitoring Phragmites reaction to reintroduction of tidal flow and salinity. Contact: Tom Steinke Fairfield Conservation Commission, Independence Hall 725 Old Post Road Fairfield, CT 06430 203-256-3071

Annual cutting of perimeter of one-acre stand and monitoring with aerial photos on five-year basis; herbicide application on small patch at edge of salt marsh. Contact: Beth Lapin The Nature Conservancy 55 High Street Middletown, CT 06457 203-344-0716

DELAWARE Aerial spraying of RodeoTM (glyphosate) and water management plan using stoplogs and vegetation analyses of replacement species. Contact: Paul Daly Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge RD #1 Box 147 Smyrna, DE 19977 302-653-9345

Monitoring the ecological factors (water table level, PH, salinity) governing the growth of Phragmites in 4 habitats; 1) open high salt marsh, 2) open low salt marsh, 3) brackish water impoundment, 4) freshwater impoundment. Investigating Phragmites control with glyphosate. Contact: Wayne Lehman and Bill Jones Delaware Division of Fish and Wildlife P.O. Box 1401 Dover, DE 19903 302-653-2079.

MASSACHUSETTS Cutting three times in one season, followed by opening of tidal flood gate. Contact: Mike Wheelwright Department of Public Works Town of Quincy Quincy, MA 02169 617-773-1380 x210 Contact: Ross Dobberteen Lelito Environmental Consultants 2 Bourbon St. #102 Peabody, MA 01960 508-535-7861

MARYLAND Nassawango Creek, A Nature Conservancy Preserve RodeoTM (glyphosate) applied with backpack sprayer. Contact: Wayne Klockner The Nature Conservancy Chevy Chase Center Office Building 35 Wisconsin Circle, Suite 304 Chevy Chase Maryland 20815 301-656-8073

Spraying with RodeoTM (glyphosate), burning. Contact: Steve Ailstock Environmental Center Anne Arundel Community College Arnold, MD

NEW JERSEY Aerial spraying with RodeoTM (glyphosate), prescribed burn to remove litter. Contact: David Beall Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge Brigantine Division PO Box 72, Great Creek RD Oceanville, NJ 08231 609-652-1665

Pulling rhizomes, chemical spray. Contact: Liz Johnson The Nature Conservancy 17 Fairmont Road Pottersville, NJ 07979 908-439-3007 NEW YORK:

Using water level manipulation and burning. Contact: Bob Parris Wertheim NWR P.O. Box 21 Smith Road Shirley, NY 11967 516-286-0485

PENNSYLVANIA Chemical application. Contact: Dick Nugent Tinicum Environmental Center Scott Plaza 2 Philadelphia, PA 19113 215-521-0663

OHIO Arcola Creek Wetland, Morgan Marsh Controlling Phragmites by cutting. Contact: Terry Seidel The Nature Conservancy Ohio Field Office 1504 West 1st Ave. Columbus, Ohio 43212 614-486-6789

VIRGINIA RodeoTM (glyphosate) application and monitoring program. Contact: Irvin Ailes Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge Chincoteague, VA 23336 804-336-6122

Winter burns. Contact: Marilyn Ailes Public Works Office Building Q29 Aegis Combat System Center Wallops Island, VA 23337 804-824-2082

Management Research Programs: LOUISIANA Aerial photographs of the Mississippi River Delta indicated that different stands of Phragmites had different infrared signatures. Isozyme analyses were performed on samples from these stands in order to determine whether they differed genetically and constituted different clones. Two distinct clones were found and both differed from stands elsewhere on the Gulf coast. Additional isozymal work is planned on populations from elsewhere on the Gulf coast and, if time allows, from populations in the eastern and Great Lakes states as well

For research on population biology and control methods refer to BIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS section.

Management Research Needs: Research on the following facets of Phragmites invasions and basic biology are needed: 1. what types and levels of disturbance and stress induce Phragmites to invade and/or dominate an area?; 2. how effective are various control programs and what conditions promote or allow Phragmites to reinvade areas from which it has been removed?; 3. if Phragmites does reinvade how long does this process take?; 4. are there ways to alleviate or mitigate for the stresses that induce the spread of Phragmites?; 5. can the use of competitive plantings of Typha or other desirable species be used to control Phragmites.

Biological Research Needs: What are the genetics of natural populations and how do stable and invasive populations differ?

Reedbeds are a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Many important reedbeds are listed as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), classified as Wetlands of International Importance under the RAMSAR Convention, and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the EC Birds Directive (6). Many are managed as reserves by the RSPB, English Nature and the Countryside Council for Wales (6).

Please contact your local NRCS Field Office.

This grass cannot withstand prolonged heavy grazing. Its upright growth makes it easy for livestock to remove all the leaves. For maximum production, no more than 50 percent of current year's growth by weight should be grazed off during growing season. Common reed tolerates burning if water is above soil surface. Burning is not essential for management. Water control that lowers the water level, but does not drain the area, increases production. Grazing deferments of 60 to 90 days every 2 to 3 years during the growing season improve plant vigor.

Although coarse, common reed is readily eaten by cattle and horses. It provides high quality warm season forage but becomes tough and unpalatable after maturity. Animals grazing this grass during winter should be fed a protein concentrate. This plant has been used in the Southwest for lattices in constructing adobe houses. Indians have used the stems for arrows, weaving mats, and carrying nets.

The preference is full sun, wet conditions (including shallow water), and a rich fertile soil to sustain the prodigious growth of this grass. A little shade and soil that is merely moist are tolerated. This grass can spread aggressively through its rhizomes.

Stewardship Overview: Communities that have stable Phragmites populations present but have been exposed to disturbance should be closely monitored. Management is necessary when evidence indicates that Phragmites has spread, or is spreading and threatening the integrity of rare communities, invading the habitat of rare plants or animals or interfering with the wildlife support function of refuges. Cutting, burning, application of herbicides (in particular Rodeo), or water management schemes are possible control measures. The measure(s) used will depend on a number of factors including the size and location of the infestation, the presence of sensitive rare species and the work-force available.

Considered a noxious weed in several states.

Comments: Generally accepted as an essentially cosmopolitan species; the name Phragmites communis is used for this plant in most older North American literature. LEM 6Jun01.