Columba fasciata, the Band-tailed Pigeon, is a New World bird residing in the western Americas and Canada. It is found as far north as British Columbia, and extends south to Argentina. Its easternmost limit is the Rocky Mountains. (Encarta, 2001)

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) BREEDING, FASCIATA group: southwestern British Columbia, Utah, north-central Colorado, south to southern Baja California, Mexican tableland, and mountains of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and north-central Nicaragua (AOU 1998). NON-BREEDING, FASCIATA group: western Washington, central California and southwestern U.S. south through breeding range, rarely north to British Columbia (AOU 1998). RESIDENT, ALBILINEA group: mountains of Costa Rica and western Panama; and in South America in mountains from Venezuela, Trinidad, and Colombia south to Peru, Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina (AOU 1998).

The Band-tailed Pigeon is a medium sized bird weighing up to 340 g (12 oz) and reaching a length of 39 cm (15 in). The head is small, with a linear bill, and broad neck. The bill and feet are yellow with black markings on the tips. The coloration varies from a purplish-grey on the head and upper body, to a brownish slate blue on each side of the breast. Its underside grades from the darker purplish-grey at the top of the breast, to near white at the tail. As its name implies, the Band-tailed Pigeon has a black band across its tail feathers. A thin white band appears on the back of the neck in adults, extending to just behind the eye on each side. In direct sunlight, iridescent greens and purples can be seen on the neck and breast. Feathers are of medium length with broadly arched tips. Females are similar to males, with markings less pronounced. (Audubon, 1995; Encarta, 2001; Readers Digest, 1990)

Range mass: 340 (high) g.

Average mass: 340 g.

Length: 37 cm

Weight: 398 grams

• Terrestrial

The Band-tailed Pigeon is found in the forests or coastal woodlands of Western British Colombia and America. They perch, nest and feed in coniferous trees such as pines and pinyons as well as oaks. Unlike the common pigeon which can be found in cities around the world, the Band-tailed Pigeon will avoid populated areas and any human contact. (Hogle Zoo, 2001; Readers Digest, 1990; Ehrlich, 1988)

Terrestrial Biomes: forest ; mountains

Comments: BREEDING: Generally found in temperate and mountain coniferous and mixed forests and woodlands, especially pine-oak woodlands, and locally in southern lowlands; also forage in cultivated areas, suburban gardens and parks (Subtropical and Temperate zones) (AOU 1983; Braun 1994). Will often forage in diverse habitats not used for nesting.

North American Coastal populations usually found below 1,000 m in a variety of forest types, especially pine-oak, spruce, fir, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), cedar (Thuja spp.), hemlock (TSUGA spp.) and alder (Alnus spp.; Braun 1994). In Oregon and Washington, typically found in Douglas-fir, hemlock, cedar, and spruce (Braun 1994). In Oregon, most abundant in western third of the Coast Range in association with distribution of Pacific red elder and cascara buckthorn (Sanders 1999). Recorded occasionally foraging above timber line on Lupinus species (Gabrielson and Jewett 1940). In northern California, found in Douglas-fir forests, spruce groves, alder thickets and redwood snags (Glover 1953, Braun 1994). May use spruce in greater proportion to availability (Glover 1953). In southern California, typically use pine-oak (Braun 1994).

Interior populations nest in mountains, with highest densities between 1,600 and 2,700 m in areas dominated by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) and oak (Quercus spp.), but are also found in lodgepole pine (P. CONTORTA), pine-Douglas-fir forests, and spruce-Douglas-fir-fir (PICEA-PSEUDOTSUGA-ABIES; Braun 1994; Keppie and Braun 2000). In Colorado, most abundant in forests between 1,800 and 3,200 m and those dominated by ponderosa pine and Gambel oak (QUERCUS GAMBELLI); also uses spruce-fir-aspen (PICEA-PSEUDOTSUGA-POPULUS), lodgepole pine (P. CONTORTA), limber pine (P. FLEXILIS), riparian habitats and agricultural areas in foothills (Braun 1973, Andrews and Righter 1992). In Utah, uses Gambel oak and pinyon pine (P. EDULIS, Monophylla); in Arizona and New Mexico uses oak-juniper (QUERCUS-JUNIPERUS) and pinyon-juniper woodlands (Keppie and Braun 2000).

In the neotropics, a bird of mountainous forested country, usually in deciduous broadleaf forests, broadleaf evergreen forests and scrub (Rappole et al. 1995). In Mexico and Central America, found in highland pine-oak, pine-oak-fir, and oak woodlands, between 1000 and 3000 m during the breeding season (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Hutto 1992, Howell and Webb 1995). In Panama, uses forest, forest borders and clearings with large trees between 1200 and 3000 meters (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). In Colombia, usually found between 2000 and 3000 meters in humid mountain forest habitats, as well as clearings with scattered large trees and steep scrubby slopes (Hilty and Brown 1986). In Venezuela, recorded in northern mountain habitats, including paramos, open fields with scattered trees, savannas, second growth, and wheat fields. Occurs between 900 and 3000 meters north of the Orinoco River, between 1200 and 3000 meters south of the Orinoco (DeSchauensee and Phelps 1978). May range seasonally to areas higher or lower than 'normal' range (Hilty and Brown 1986, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Howell and Webb 1995).

Mineral springs and mineral graveling sites are important for mineral intake by adults, especially during the nesting season. Pigeons show strong fidelity to mineral sites (Jarvis and Passmore 1992). Use of mineral sites is most notable in Coastal populations, and less so in Interior populations where mineral needs may instead be satisfied by abrasion of grit that is highly basic (Braun 1994). Although several authors suggested that mineral sites provided calcium in diet (March and Sadlier 1972, Jarvis and Passmore 1992), a study in Oregon revealed sites to be low in calcium but high in sodium, where principal foods (fruits of Sambucus spp. and Rhamnus purshiana) were high in calcium and low in sodium (Sanders and Jarvis 2000). Site use probably depends not only on mineral content, but also vegetation structure, development, level of human activity, and traditional use by pigeons (Sanders and Jarvis 2000).

Nest habitat (e.g., nest placement, type and age of tree or shrub, elevation and aspect) varies greatly throughout range (Braun 1994). Will nest in a tree or shrub 4-10 m from the ground, usually near the bole in dense foliage, and often next to an opening or above a slope or precipice. The nest is a loose platform of twigs (Terres 1980; Braun 1994; Baicich and Harrison 1997). Birds display strong fidelity to nest area (Braun 1972, Schroeder and Braun 1993), and nest trees may be used repeatedly with new nests constructed each year (Braun 1994).

NONBREEDING: Interior populations winter primarily in pine-oak woodlands and montane coniferous forests in Mexico, along the Sierra Madre Occidental; also in tropical deciduous forests in Sinaloa (Braun 1994). Coastal populations winter from central California to Baja California in pine-oak woodlands, coastal chaparral (Adenostoma, Arctostaphylos, Ceanothus, and Quercus spp.) and adjacent agricultural areas (Jeffrey 1977).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Partial migrant. Northern Coastal and northern Interior breeding populations are mostly migratory; arrive in northern Coastal areas March-May, in northern Interior areas generally late March-May. Return southward late August-October (Terres 1980; Keppie and Braun 2000). Oregon birds probably do not begin autumn migration before late September (Jarvis and Passmore 1992).

Northern Coastal populations migrate to southern California and Baja California, but in some northern urban centers (e.g., Puget Sound, Washington; Vancouver Island, British Columbia) may be present year-round where feeders and holly orchards are available (Keppie and Braun 2000). Colorado birds migrate and winter along the Sierra Madre Occidental in western Mexico (Schroeder and Braun 1993). Due to nomadic habits, it can be difficult to distinguish migration chronology from shorter-distance travels for foraging (Keppie and Braun, in press).

Southern populations in Mexico, Central America and South America are year-round residents but considered local nomads (Hilty and Brown 1986, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Howell and Webb 1995).

An omnivore, the Band-tailed Pigeon will eat the nuts, seeds, berries, blossoms (buds of the balsam poplar) and insects found in its coastal woodland and forest habitat. When in season it is also known to eat domestic crops such as cherries, berries, oats, barley and wheat. (Hogle Zoo, 2001; Encarta, 2000; Readers Digest, 1990; Ehrlich, 1988)

Comments: Diet varies by season and location; 98% vegetarian (Keppie and Braun 2000). Feeds on new buds, flowers, nuts, seeds, grain and berries (e.g., acorns, hazelnuts, pine seeds, waste oats, barley and corn, wild grapes, elderberries, mulberries, blueberries, etc.); also eats some insects (Terres 1980; Braun 1994; Keppie and Braun 2000). In Oregon, red elder and cascara buckthorn are primary foods during nesting season (Jarvis and Passmore 1992). Will readily exploit stored or waste agricultural grains, and will use bird feeders (Braun 1994). In Pacific Coast states, congregates at mineral springs to consume minerals from mid-June to mid-September; may be essential for sodium intake (Jarvis and Passmore 1992; Sanders and Jarvis 2000).

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Coastal population was estimated at 2.4-3.1 million individuals in 1992 (USFWS 1996).

Gregarious year-round; size of foraging and migrating flocks may range from tens to many hundreds of birds (Keppie and Braun 2000). In Colorado, fairly discrete subpopulations occur in rather well-defined areas (Braun 1972). Nomadic in response to food availability. See Jarvis and Passmore (1992) for detailed ecological study in Oregon. Also see Jackman and Scott (1975), Braun (1994), and Keppie and Braun (2000) for more extensive ecological and life history summaries.

Average lifespan

Status: wild: 222 months.

The breeding season for Band-tailed Pigeon begins in March and lasts through late spring. During courtship, the male brings food for the female, who beats her wings in a food begging posture similar to the display by nestlings during food delivery to the nest. The female builds a flat, loose nest on the ground, in low brush, or in the fork of lower tree branches. Nesting materials are provided by the male and consist mainly of twigs and pine needles. One, or in rare cases two, eggs are laid per season with both male and female responsible for incubation. Eggs range in color from white to light yellow or bluish, with small white spots at the larger end. Eggs hatch within 18 - 20 days, and chicks fledge 28 - 30 days after hatching. (Hogle Zoo, 2001; Skutch, 1991; Audubon, 1995; Ehrlich, 1988)

Average time to hatching: 19 days.

Average eggs per season: 1.

Breeding season is prolonged, beginning in March in south to early May in north; breeding reported well into fall in some areas, probably in response to food availability (Gutierrez et al. 1975, Jarvis and Passmore 1992, Braun 1994, Baicich and Harrison 1997). Timing of breeding less a factor of latitude or photoperiod than of food availability (Gutierrez et al. 1975, Jarvis and Passmore 1992). Two broods per season not unusual, and three broods possible (Keppie and Braun 2000). In Colorado and New Mexico, breeds in spring and summer, sometimes in fall in New Mexico if acorns are abundant (Gutierrez et al. 1975).

Clutch size usually one (85-95%), infrequently two. Incubation by both sexes, about 18-20 days. Nestling altricial and downy. Young leaves nest in 25-30 days. (Terres 1980, Baicich and Harrison 1997; Keppie and Braun 2000).

Will defend nest area and there is evidence of territorial flight displays and defense (Peeters 1962, Jackman and Scott 1975), but territoriality is not well-studied (Keppie and Braun 2000). Based on second-hand reports, Neff (1947) suggested that this species is a communal nester in New Mexico, but this has not been corroborated by any other subsequent research. Braun (1994) suggested that repeated use of nest tree with a new nest constructed each year may give the appearance of communal nesting and asserts that birds of Interior populations are solitary nesters.

Although hunted to low numbers in the early 1900's, the Band-tailed Pigeon is beginning once again to flourish. Hatching only one egg each season, the Band-tailed Pigeon population can be quickly devastated through over-hunting. With the help of the Federal Migratory Game Bird Act of 1918, and recent changes in hunting limits, the Band-tailed Pigeon should make a full recovery. (Ehrlich, 1988)

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N4B - Apparently Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N4B,N4N : N4B: Apparently Secure - Breeding, N4N: Apparently Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Reasons: Still widespread and relatively common from British Columbia to Peru and Argentina, but long-term declines have occurred in most parts of its range.

Global Short Term Trend: Decline of 10-30%

Comments: North American populations plummeted in early decades of the twentieth century, but gradually recovered after legal protection (Bent 1932, Grinnell and Miller 1944). More recently, long-term population trend estimates indicate significant declines over the past 15-30 years in Pacific Coast populations. Surveys are insufficient to accurately assess status and trends of Interior populations. Oregon Mineral Site Surveys and Washington Call Counts both indicate long-term declining trends in Coastal populations. Oregon Mineral Site surveys show an average annual change of -2% between 1968 and 1997 (95% C.I. -4% to 2%; N=8 sites; Casazza et al. 2000). Likewise Washington Call Counts show a long-term average annual decline of -1.5% between 1975 and 1998 (90% C.I.: -5.5% to 2.4%; N=65 survey routes; not significant; WDFW 1999). Call Count data showed a significant increase in the early 1990's which has since somewhat leveled off (WDFW 1999). Harvest rates have likewise declined dramatically. In the three Coastal states harvests dropped from 550,000 birds in 1968 to 70,000 in 1988, and in British Columbia from 14,000 in 1967 to fewer than 500 in 1991 (Braun 1994). In the four Interior states (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah), estimates from available hunting surveys for 1968 to 1999 show declines by an order of magnitude: total number of hunters declined from 1129 to 161, and number of pigeons harvested declined from 2585 to 283 (Four Corners Band-tailed Pigeon Subcommittee 2000). Reduced harvests are due in part to more restrictive limits and seasons, but also likely reflect smaller populations (Braun 1994, Four Corners Band-tailed Pigeon Subcommittee 2000). North American Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) data show significant long-term declines survey-wide and for Coastal populations, but sample sizes for Interior populations are too small for reliable trend estimates (Sauer et. al 2000). Between 1966 and 1999, populations declined significantly survey-wide by an average -2.9% per year (P = 0.00, N = 194 survey routes), which translates to a total decline of 62% in 34 years. Long-term declines were also significant for the Pacific Coast region as a whole (-2.4% annually, P = 0.04, N = 146) and in the analysis regions of British Columbia (-3.9%, P = 0.01, N = 22), Oregon (-1.8%, P = 0.01, N = 27), and the Sierra Nevada (-4.2%, P = 0.04, N = 17). Between 1980 and 1999 declines were significant in these same analysis areas (Survey-wide: -5.8%, P = 0.00, N = 171; Pacific Coast region: -4.1%, P = 0.05, N = 131; British Columbia: -10.6%, P = 0.01, N = 18; Oregon: -7.3%, P = 0.01, N = 27; Sierra Nevada: -8.3%, P = 0.04, N = 16). In the past ten years, 1990-98, broad regional trends are not statistically significant, but show a declining tendency (survey-wide: -6.29%, P = 0.068, N = 138; British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California inclusive: -6.08%, P = 0.115, N = 123; Sauer et. al 2000). Partners in Flight lists the species as a priority for conservation in oak woodlands of the Sierra Nevada region and in coniferous forests of the Southern Pacific Rainforests region (Pashley et al. 2000). For southwestern ponderosa pine habitats, Hall et al. (1997) list the species as of moderate conservation concern in Arizona and high concern in New Mexico. No detailed information available for neotropics, but has declined in Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia (Stiles and Skutch 1989, Ridgely and Gwynne 1989, Hilty and Brown 1986).

Degree of Threat: B : Moderately threatened throughout its range, communities provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure of the community over the long-term, but are apparently recoverable

Comments: Habitat degradation and destruction, and overhunting have been cited as the primary threats. Declines in early twentieth century due to overhunting, and populations rallied with hunting regulation. Recent Pacific Coast population declines thought to be related to widespread habitat alteration due to forestry practices in the latter part of the twentieth century, in particular replacement of old-growth forests by even-age monocultures of fast-growing conifers, but this needs more empirical study (Braun 1994, Sanders 1999). In Costa Rica, large flocks were greatly reduced by shooting in many areas in past years (Stiles and Skutch 1989). In Panama, has decreased in recent decades due to forest destruction and shooting (Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). In Colombia, has declined because of habitat loss (Hilty and Brown 1986). Natural threats include predators (mainly raptors), egg loss and squab mortality, and trichomoniasis (Trichomonas gallinae). A Pacific Coast strain of trichomoniasis is particularly virulent, and caused the deaths of 15-16,000 pigeons in 1988 (Braun 1994).

Restoration Potential: Restoration will require a better understanding of population status, threats to the species, and landscape relationships. Management that maintains a combination of closed-canopy mature to old-growth forest, open-canopy forest with abundant food plants (e.g. oaks and fruiting shrubs), mineral sites and open water across the landscape should benefit the species.

Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Nomadic, and uses large areas for foraging. Little information is available on home range, territory, and extent of movements, although fidelity to nesting areas, foraging areas, and mineral sites is strong (Braun 1972, Jarvis and Passmore 1992, Schroeder and Braun 1993).

In the Oregon Coast Range, mean home range recorded for radio-tagged adults was 11,121 ha (SD +/- 24,298 ha, N = 70; Leonard 1998, cited in Keppie and Braun 2000). In northern California, nesting territories were reported to range from 0.16 to 0.81 kilometer (0.10 to 0.5 mile) in radius, but unclear how territory size was determined (Glover 1953). Size of nesting territory may vary with topography, forest cover, and proximity to water (Glover 1953). In Colorado, banding returns revealed that regular movements during breeding season were restricted to a range less than 40 air miles in distance (< 65 kilometers; Braun 1972).

Little information exists on relationship to landscape patterns, such as fragmentation effects or use of corridors. In northwestern California, avoided forest edges created by clearcuts (Rosenberg and Raphael 1986). Nests are usually more than 20 meters from openings and more than 365 meters from human habitations (Glover 1953). Movements between nesting, roosting, and feeding sites have a tendency to follow stream courses (Glover 1953, Kautz and Braun 2000).

Management Requirements: POPULATION MANAGEMENT: Nomadic nature complicates study, and the lack of standardized population surveys hampers management. Birds tend to concentrate foraging in one area during times of local food abundance and then move on (Keppie and Braun, in press). However, there is considerable evidence of strong fidelity to breeding areas (Braun 1972, Schroeder and Braun 1993) and it should be possible to manage on a sub-population basis (Braun 1994). For example, separate hunting regulations could be established for different populations within a state.

See Braun (1994) for a summary of annual survival estimates from various sources. Estimates of adult annual survival rates range from 60% to 73% in Colorado, and from 60% to 77% for coastal populations (Braun 1994). Jarvis and Passmore (1992) concluded that maintenance of a stable population (with the mean adult survival rate of 64% observed in their study) required a production rate at or near the estimated biotic potential (40.8%). But a stable population could also be maintained with the estimated rate of recruitment observed (23%) and high rates of survival (83% for adults, 68% for juveniles).

HABITAT MANAGEMENT: Important habitat components include closed-canopy forests for nest sites, open-canopy forests for foraging, and presence of mineral springs and licks (Sanders 1999). Close proximity to free water (< 400 meters) is also important (Glover 1953). Food availability apparently greatly influences breeding and flock movements (Gutierrez et al. 1975), and any management activity that reduces mast production or the availability of fruiting shrubs and other primary foods would be detrimental.

There is no information available on how changes in agriculture and land-use practices may have affected the species (Keppie and Braun 2000). Bandtails use various forest successional stages for various purposes, but there is little quantitative information available on relationship to forest management activities and landscape patterns to aid the manager. Given the widespread landscape changes over the past 50 years these relationships need much further investigation, particularly at landscape scales.

In Northwestern California, Hagar (1960) observed bandtails both in virgin Douglas-fir forest and in brush successional stages of harvest units, but not in 'weed' successional stages. Glover (1953) found nests chiefly in 'dense' (undefined) canopy cover, and 21 to 365 m from habitat openings. Birds used spruce (Picea sp.) in greater proportion to its availability; spruce groves (20-60 years) and alder thickets (Alnus; 20-40 years) provided dense nesting and roosting cover; and redwood snags (Sequoia sempervirens) provided prominent perches (Glover 1953). Glover (1953) concluded that logging was detrimental to pigeons: he found only one of 53 nesting territories located in an area that had been logged within 10 years; all of eight observed nests were more than two miles from logging activities; and no migrating pigeons were observed within 800 meters of logging operations or near clearcuts less than three years old. However, he also noted that succession of plants in harvest units and burns can also increase abundance of food plants (e.g. Rubus spp, Sambucus spp., Rhamnus purshiana).

A study in the southern Oregon Coast Range found bandtails more abundant in mature (80-120 years old) and old-growth (200-525 years) Douglas-fir forests (Pseudotsuga menziesii) than in young stands (40-72 years; Carey et al. 1991). In southern Washington Cascades Douglas-fir forests bandtails were more abundant in mature stands (95-190 years old) than in wet old-growth (250-700 yrs) or young stands (55-80 years; Manuwal 1991). In Oregon, Pacific red elder (Sambucus racemosa var. ARBORESCENS) and cascara buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana) are especially important for forage during the nesting season (Jarvis and Passmore 1992, Sanders 1999).

Marcot (1984) found them in relatively high densities in young post-harvest shrub stands of northern California Douglas-fir forests, and concluded that they have probably increased since extensive clear-cutting began in the area in the 1950s. However, Raphael et al. (1988) found them in highest densities in saw timber and mature stands of northern California Douglas-fir forests, and concluded that future population trends would be positive as harvest units matured. (Though see 'Trends' section below.)

In a giant sequoia forest (Sequoia gigantea), density declined after a treatment that removed the brush/sapling understory of white fir (Abies concolor) and incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), removed standing dead trees, and burned the remaining slash (Kilgore 1971).

Mineral sites are important for supplementary sodium intake and should be included in management strategies, particularly for the Coastal population. In Oregon, scarcity of sites apparently is not a limiting factor for population size; however most known sites are located on private lands and are thus vulnerable to changes in land use (Sanders and Jarvis 2000).

Easily attracted to grain at bait stations, livestock feeding sites, storage areas, etc. and will continue to use such sites throughout the season (Curtis and Braun 1983a, Braun 1994). Bait stations may be used to supplement food and increase production where food is limiting.

Management Research Needs: Research is needed on specific habitat requirements through all life stages and seasons for both Coastal and Interior populations. Especially need a current understanding of response to forestry and land management practices (e.g. natural and prescribed fire, herbicide applications, and various silvicultural prescriptions). Details of relationships to landscape patterns are virtually unknown. Most details of life history in Meso-American populations have been little studied, as are the species' needs at stopover and wintering areas. See Jarvis and Passmore (1992), Braun (1994), and Keppie and Braun (2000) for extensive list of research needs, including monitoring, management, habitat relationships, effects of hunting mortality, recruitment and survival rates, and effects of habitat alterations, management activities, and virulent disease.

Biological Research Needs: Virtually all aspects of the species' life history need further study, particularly habitat relationships across the species' range and throughout the seasons, and ecological details for wintering and resident populations in Meso-America. Seasonal nutritional requirements, migration patterns, philopatry, territoriality, intraspecific behavior, productivity and survivorship all need further study.

In addition to their regular diet, the Band-tailed Pigeon will feed on seasonal crops such as cherries, wheat, and barley. However, due to their relatively low numbers, the impact is negligible (Gamebird Alliance, 1999)

The Band-tailed Pigeon has been a source of food for humans throughout history. (Gamebird Alliance, 1999; Audubon, 1995)

Comments: From 1957 to 1983, harvest in California, Oregon, and Washington averaged 414,000, with 55% of the harvest in California (Jarvis and Passmore 1992). The 1995 harvest was an estimated 2074 in Oregon and 10,428 in California (season closed in Wasington) (USFWS 1996). Harvest in the Four Corners region was 1518 in 1995, down from 6000 in earlier years (USFWS 1996).

Stewardship Overview: A bird of montane coniferous forests and oak woodlands. Of seven subspecies occurring in the Americas, only one occurs in North America, in two distinct geographic areas: an Interior population in the Southwest Four Corners region and a Coastal population in the Pacific Coast states and provinces. Gregarious year-round and nomadic; move with the availability of food, often showing up in towns and agricultural areas.

Bandtails have been the object of a long history of market and sport hunting, and sport hunting continues to a limited extent in six western states and Mexico. Pacific Coast populations have declined steeply, losing an estimated 60% of the population in the last 34 years. Causes of declines are mostly unstudied, but may be associated with widespread changes in forest landscapes. A low reproductive rate contributes to concern for the species' recovery. The current lack of consistent and standardized population surveys throughout the range of the two populations hampers effective management.

Species Impact: Suggestions that pigeons carry agricultural diseases are unsubstantiated (Keppie and Braun 2000). Many early reports of crop damage by pigeons (e.g., soft fruits and grain crops) and these justified the institution of regulated hunting seasons in the 1930s. Assumptions that they cause crop damage by digging grain or pulling sprouts unfounded as birds mostly feed on unsprouted grain, waste or shattered grain from ground surface. Do not alight on standing grains, but will feed on cut barley before harvest and shocked wheat (Neff 1947, Braun 1994, Keppie and Braun 2000). No recent reports of major crop damage (Gabrielson and Jewett 1940, Keppie and Braun 2000).

Comments: On the basis of studies by Johnson and Clayton (2000) and Johnson et al. (2001) of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, and a review of morphological (Ridgway 1916), serological (Cumley and Irwin 1944), and behavioral (Johnston 1962) characters, we place New World pigeons formerly included in Columba in a separate genus, Patagioenas Reichenback, 1853 (AOU 2003).