Pinus strobus, the Eastern White Pine, is characterized by fascicles of 5 fine needles with a nonpersistent bundle sheath, and relatively soft, unarmed, elongate seed cones whose scales are spread at maturity. The native range of eastern white pine stretches from southeastern Manitoba to Newfoundland in Canada and from Minnesota and Iowa eastward to Maine and Pennsylvania, with a southward Appalachian extension to Tennessee and Georgia and isolated occurrences in western Kentucky, Illinois, and Indiana. The species also has become naturalized from plantings, both within its historical range and elsewhere, including portions of Europe, Asia, New Zealand, and Australia. A related taxon in portions of southern Mexico and Guatemala is sometimes treated as Pinus strobus var. chiapensis, but more often as a distinct species, Pinus chiapensis.

Natural stands of Pinus strobus occur in a variety of habitats, ranging from dune forests to bogs and mixed conifer/hardwood forests. The species also colonizes old fields and other former agricultural lands that are reverting back to forests. It has been planted extensively in plantations and is also used to revegetate mine spoils. The species also is cultivated commonly as a shade and ornamental tree

Eastern White Pine is an important timber tree for the production of softwood lumber. The wood is used for construction, cabinetry and furniture-making, handcrafts, and various other woodworking. Native American tribes used it extensively for various medicinal properties and it is an important food source for wildlife. The long history of cultivation has led to the development of numerous cultivars and forms. The species is affected by the exotic white pine blister rust Cronartium ribicola, an important pathogen of timber trees in the white pine group in temperate North America.

White pine was a favorite tree of naturalist/author Henry David Thoreau. According to Ray Angelo’s botanical index to Thoreau’s writings, white pine received more mention than almost any other tree. Climbing a tall specimen of white pine altered Thoreau’s view of the world: “We hug the earth — how rarely we mount! Methinks we might elevate ourselves a little more. We might climb a tree at least. I found my account in climbing a tree once. It was a tall white pine on the top of a hill, and though I got well pitched I was well payed for it, for I discovered new mountains in the horizon which I had never seen before, — so much more of the earth and the heavens. I might have walked about the foot of the tree for three score years and ten, and yet I certainly should never have seen them.” Henry David Thoreau, Walking, an essay first delivered on 23 April 1851 at the Concord Lyceum, published posthumously in The Atlantic Monthly, 9 June 1862, pp. 657–674.

Tall tree with fine bluish green needles in fascicles (bundles) of five and relatively soft (vs. hard and woody), unarmed, elongate seed cones.

Pinus strobus L, eastern white pine, is the largest conifer of the eastern and upper Midwest forests, reaching 150 feet in height and up to 40 inches in diameter. In dense stands, trees produce tall, cylindrical stems with pyramidal shaped crowns, characterized by distinctive, plate like branching, especially noticeable as the trees become older. On young growth, the bark remains rather thin, smooth, and greenish-brown in color. On older trees the bark becomes deeply fissured and dark grayish-brown in color. Its evergreen needles are in clusters of 5, soft, flexible, 2 1/2 to 5 inches long, and bluish-green in appearance. Its cones are about 4 to 8 inches long and 1 inch thick. These remain attached for 1 to several months after ripening in the autumn of the second season.

See Global Biodiversity Information Facility

Pinus strobusL., Species Plantarum 2: 1001
Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum : Exhibentes Plantas Rite Cognitas, Ad Genera Relatas, cum Differentiis Specificis, Nominibus Trivialibus, Synonymis Selectis, Locis Natalibus, Secundum Systema Sexuale Digestas, vol. 2. Impensis Laurentii Salvii, Stockholm.

Eastern white pine grows on a variety of soils ranging from light, sandy to heavy textured soils. White pine ranges across southern Canada from Manitoba to Newfoundland, throughout the northern and eastern states from Minnesota and northern Iowa to the Atlantic coast, and southward along the Appalachian mountains to northern Georgia and Alabama.

For a current distribution map, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.

Pinus strobus L.:
Canada (North America)
China (Asia)
United States (North America)

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

According to Critchfield and Little (1966), the natural range of Pinus strobus was from southeastern Manitoba to Newfoundland in Canada and from Minnesota and Iowa eastward to Maine and Pennsylvania, with a southward Appalachian extension to Tennessee and Georgia and isolated occurrences in western Kentucky, Illinois, and Indiana. Additionally, Critchfield and Little mapped and discussed disjunct plants sometimes treated as var. chiapensis that occur in a series of isolated populations in southern Mexico (Guerrero, Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas) and adjacent Guatemala.

In temperate North America, Pinus strobus has been grown extensively in plantations, particularly beginning with the U.S. Civilian Conservation Corps extensive reforestation programs in the 1930s. Thus although heavy commercial timber removal followed by poor regeneration resulted in fewer and thinner native stands, the overall range of the species underwent an expansion. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish the natural range of the species prior to the European colonization of North America from the present range, which includes many naturalized stands and populations that became established from seeds dispersed from planted trees. Kartesz and Meacham (1999) and the U.S.D.A. Plants database now map a distribution from Manitoba to Arkansas, east to Newfoundland and Georgia.

Pinus strobus also has long been planted for reforestation programs, extensively in central and eastern Europe and less so in portions of Africa, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. In some places, it has escaped to become a naturalized invasive exotic Ulmer, 2003; Zerbe, 2007; http://www.hear.org/gcw/species/pinus_strobus/).

Trees to 67m; trunk to 1.8m diam., straight; crown conic, becoming rounded to flattened. Bark gray-brown, deeply furrowed, with long, irregularly rectangular, scaly plates. Branches whorled, spreading-upswept; twigs slender, pale red-brown, glabrous or pale puberulent, aging gray, ±smooth. Buds ovoid-cylindric, light red-brown, 0.4--0.5cm, slightly resinous. Leaves 5 per fascicle, spreading to ascending, persisting 2--3 years, 6--10cm ´ 0.7--1mm, straight, slightly twisted, pliant, deep green to blue-green, pale stomatal lines evident only on adaxial surfaces, margins finely serrulate, apex abruptly acute to short-acuminate; sheath 1--1.5cm, shed early. Pollen cones ellipsoid, 10--15mm, yellow. Seed cones maturing in 2 years, shedding seeds and falling soon thereafter, clustered, pendent, symmetric, cylindric to lance-cylindric or ellipsoid-cylindric before opening, ellipsoid-cylindric to cylindric or lance-cylindric when open, (7--)8--20cm, gray-brown to pale brown, with purple or gray tints, stalks 2--3cm; apophyses slightly raised, resinous at tip; umbo terminal, low. Seeds compressed, broadly obliquely obovoid; body 5--6mm, red-brown mottled with black; wing 1.8--2.5cm, pale brown. 2 n =24.

Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves blue-green, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves triangular, Needle-like leaves twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 5, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Twigs glabrous, Twigs pubescent, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with missing or very weak prickle, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds red, Seeds brown, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.

Trees to 65 m tall; trunk to 1.8 m d.b.h.; bark gray-brown, deeply furrowed, with irregularly oblong, long, scaly plates; crown conical, becoming rounded or flattened on top; winter buds light red-brown, ovoid-cylindric, slightly resinous. Needles 5 per bundle, not pendulous, deep green to blue-green, slightly twisted, 6-14 cm × 0.7-1 mm, pliant, stomatal lines present on all surfaces, base with early shed sheath 1-1.5 cm, margin finely serrulate. Seed cones clustered, pedunculate (peduncle 2-3 cm), gray-brown or pale brown with purple or gray tints, cylindric, ellipsoid, or lanceolate-cylindric when open, 7-20 cm, maturing in 2 years, then soon shedding seeds and falling. Apophyses slightly raised, apex resinous; umbo terminal. Seeds red-brown, black mottled, broadly and obliquely obovoid, compressed, 5-6 mm; wing pale brown, 1.8-2.5 cm.

Tall trees 60 m with a broadly conical crown. Trunks are relatively straight and eventually develop relatively thick, irregularly furrowed, dark grayish brown bark. Relatively slender, mostly gray twigs develop needles in fascicles of 5; these are slender, mostly 6–10 cm long, bluish green, triangular in cross-section and persist for only 2 or 3 years before turning yellowish and being shed. Seed cones are produced in clusters of 2–4 toward the branch tips; each cone is stalked, mostly 8–16 cm long, mainly cylindric-ellipsoid, often somewhat curved, and not long-persistent on the tree. Cone scales are spread at maturity, relatively thin, unarmed, and somewhat resinous at the blunt tip. The paired seeds are brown and mostly 20–30 mm long, including a flattened body and an elongate, asymmetrical wing. Source documents: Kral (1993), Krüssman (1985), Farjon et al. (1997), Farjon (2005).

Trees to 40(–60) m tall with a broadly conical crown. Trunks usually relatively straight, to 1.0(–1.5) m dbh; bark gray and relatively smooth on young trees, becoming dark grayish brown, relatively thick, irregularly furrowed and somewhat flaking on mature trees; wood relatively soft, pale, not very resinous. Branches irregular, often whorled, more or less divaricate. Twigs relatively slender, glabrous or more commonly minutely pubescent at the short-shoot bases, smooth, light green, soon turning gray; winter buds 5–9 mm long, oblong-ovoid, slightly resinous, the scales thin, papery, appressed; scales subtending short shoots minute, curved, nondecurrent, not long-persistent. Short-shoots producing fascicles of 5 needles; bundle sheaths thin, papery, caducous. Needles persisting 2 or 3 years, (5–)6–10(–13) cm long, 0.6–0.9 mm wide, narrowly acerose, straight, relatively flexible, bluish green (often appearing somewhat grayish), triangular in cross-section; angles minutely serrulate; ventral pair of surfaces each with 2 or 3 stomatal lines; fibrovascular bundle 1 per needle, associated with 2 or 3 resin ducts near the epidermis. Pollen cones (microstrobili) numerous, densely fasciculate at base of current year’s growth, 10–15 mm long, narrowly ellipsoid, yellow. Seed cones (megastrobili) mostly in whorls of 2–4 near the branch tips, pendulous; stalks 15–24 mm; cones (6–)8–16(–25) cm long, 4–8 cm wide (when open), cylindric-ellipsoid to narrowly oblong-ovoid, often somewhat arcuate or twisted, dull brown, open at maturity, dropping soon after seeds have been dispersed. Cone scales 40–100, relatively thin and flexible; apophysis not thickened, rhombic, rounded to obtuse; umbo terminal, blunt (unarmed), usually resinous. Seeds paired, flattened, with the body 5–8 mm long, 3–5 mm wide, reddish brown to brown, sometimes mottled; adnate wing 15–20(–30 mm long), asymmetrically ovoid-triangular, brown. Source documents: Kral (1993), Krüssman (1985), Farjon et al. (1997), Farjon (2005).

Systems

• Terrestrial

Cultivated. Beijing Shi, Jiangsu (Nanjing Shi), Jiangxi (Lu Shan), Liaoning [native to E Canada, Guatemala, S Mexico, E United States]

Mesic to dry sites; 0--1500m; St. Pierre and Miquelon; Man., N.B., Nfld., N.S., Ont., P.E.I., Que.; Conn., Del., Ga., Ill., Ind., Iowa, Ky., Maine, Md., Mass., Mich., Minn., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., Pa., Ohio, R.I., S.C., Tenn., Vt., Va., W.Va., Wis.; Mexico; Central America in Guatemala.

In temperate North America, the species occurs in well-drained to mesic soils in a wide range of habitats, at elevations of 0–1500 m (but mostly below 500 m). Seedling establishment generally is poor in calcareous soils with low organic content. Along the Great Lakes, Pinus strobus is a component of interdunal pineries on sand dunes. It can occur in bogs. It also is a component of mixed conifer/deciduous broadleaf hardwood forests. The species has been planted in monocultures in plantations and also has been used to revegetate mine spoils.

The var. chiapensis occurs in various montane and cloud forests, often mixed with broadleaf hardwoods, usually in well-drained loamy soils, at elevations of (500–)800–2000 m. Source documents: Price (1989), Kral (1993), Farjon et al. (1997), Farjon (2005).

Seedlings of white pine are grown in nursery beds for field planting. They may either be left in the nursery for 2 to 3 years and directly planted into the field, or they may be transplanted after the second year and left in a transplant bed for 1 or 2 years before field plantings. This will produce a seedling approximately 12 to 16 inches in height with 1/4 to 1/2 inch caliper. Field establishment of seedlings is accomplished with tree planting procedures, using machine transplanters or hand planting.

Foodplant / web feeder
communal larva of Acantholyda erythrocephala feeds from web on needles of Pinus strobus
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Pinus strobus

Foodplant / pathogen
subcortical pycnium of Cronartium ribicola infects and damages stem of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 3-6
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, immersed, up to 2mm diam. stroma of Cytospora coelomycetous anamorph of Cytospora pini is saprobic on dead bark of Pinus strobus

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / feeds on
gregarious, subepidermal then erumpent through cleft epidermis, dull black pycnidium of Diplodina coelomycetous anamorph of Diplodina strobi feeds on needle of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 1-5
Other: uncertain

Foodplant / pathogen
Brunchorstia anamorph of Gremmeniella abietina infects and damages live twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Fungus / saprobe
subepidermal, then exposed apothecium of Meloderma desmazieri is saprobic on leaf of Pinus strobus

Foodplant / saprobe
hysterothecium of Mytilinidion scolecosporum is saprobic on wood of Pinus strobus
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
stromatic, in large groups perithecium of Nectria fuckeliana is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 3-5, 9-12

Foodplant / saprobe
Cryptosporiopsis anamorph of Pezicula livida is saprobic on dead, fallen branch of Pinus strobus

Foodplant / sap sucker
Pineus strobi sucks sap of live shoot of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, becoming erumpeny conidioma of Strasseria coelomycetous anamorph of Strasseria geniculata is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 1-5

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Suillus placidus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus strobus

Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Thelephora terrestris is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus strobus
Remarks: captive: in captivity, culture, or experimentally induced

Fungus / saprobe
immersed apothecium of Therrya pini is saprobic on brittle, dead, attached, lacking needles branch (small) of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 2-7

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, grouped perithecium of Valsa pini is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus strobus
Remarks: season: 11-2

Although Pinus strobus can act as colonizer in reforestation of former agricultural lands, it also occurs as a mid- to late-successional species.

Pinus strobus plants become reproductively mature between 5 and 10 years of age, but do not reach peak strobilus production until the age of about 20 years. Pollen is dispersed by air between April and June (depending on latitude) and reaches the first-year megastrobili soon thereafter. Upon pollination, 13 months are required for fertilization of the ovule within the slightly enlarged one-year cone. The winged seeds mature during the second year and are dispersed by gravity and air at the end of the second year. The seed cones (megastrobili) drop from the tree soon after the seeds are dispersed.
Seeds of P. strobus are eaten by a variety of wildlife, especially small mammals. Deer and other larger mammals will browse the species when other winter forage has been exhausted. Source documents: Price (1989), Burrows and Tyrl (2001).

A disjunct population of white pines in southern Mexico and Guatemala was first described as P. strobus var. chiapensis and is still treated as such by a few authors (e.g. Farjon 1997, Flora Neotropica Monograph 75: 215). It was raised to specific rank as P. chiapensis by Andresen (1964, Phytologia 10: 417), a treatment now accepted by a majority of authors and supported by genetic research, which shows it is very distinct genetically, sharing no alleles with P. strobus and forming a distinct clade of its own, sister to two clades of American and Asian species (Liston et al. 2003, Proc. Fourth International Conifer Conference: 107-114; Syring et al. 2007a, Systematic Biology 56: 163-181; Syring et al. 2007b, Syst. Bot. 32: 703-717).

Although fairly similar to P. strobus in foliage morphology, P. chiapensis differs clearly in cone morphology, here showing a much closer resemblance to several Eurasian white pines, notably P. peuce from SE Europe and P. dalatensis from Vietnam.

The genus Pinus was present by Cretaceous times, but identification of section Strobus from fossil seed cones of this age has been equivocal (Miller, 1977). Most paleobotanical data specifically on P. strobus deals with late Quaternary range shifts from refugia in the southeastern United States northward into the present range (summarized by MacDonald et al., 1998).

The var. chiapensis was described by Martínez (1940) for disjunct populations from southern Mexico and Guatemala with slightly finer needles and slightly larger cones. Some botanists continue to maintain this as a separate variety (Farjon et al., 1997), but many others do not consider these differences discrete enough to warrant formal taxonomic recognition. Pinus monticola of the western United States also was treated as a variety of P. strobus by a few botanists in the past (P. strobus var. monticola (Douglas ex D. Don) Nutt.), but this view has been rejected universally.

Until recently, the taxonomic classification of Little and Crutchfield (1969) was still widely used, which involved subdivision of the genus into three subgenera and a complex series of sections and subsections. Subsequent studies, including analysis of molecular data resulted in the recognition of only two subgenera (Price et al., 2003), the so-called Soft or Haploxylon, Pines (subgenus Strobus) and the so-called Hard or Diploxylon Pines (subgenus Pinus), each of which still is divided into a complex series of sections and subsections. In either classification, P. strobus is the type of Pinus subgenus Strobus section Strobus subsection Strobi.

Phytochemical analyses have documented the heartwood phenolics (Erdtman, 1959; Norin, 1972) and the softwood oleoresins (summarized in Mirov, 1961, 1967) in the group. Volatile oils in the needles have been studied (Von Rudloff, 1975).

n=12 (Baranec, 1979; Saylor, 1983); 2n=24 (Löve and Löve, 1980; Hindáková and Schwarzová, 1987; Hizume, 1988).

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species. 

 
There are 18 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.
 

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 18
Species: 27
Species With Barcodes: 1

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Species: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

Reference: Grenandt et al., 2005.

As a species, Pinus strobus is secure and is not considered to be of global conservation concern. Within its temperate North American range, the state of Indiana classifies the species as State-Rare. If the populations in southern Mexico and Guatemala are considered taxonomically distinct, then var. chiapensis is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN.

Within its temperate North American range, Peattie (1948) and others have noted that, following more than two centuries of commercial logging, few primary-growth stands still exist and few individuals can be found that have attained the historical maximum height of more than 40 m.

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

Pinus strobus is commonly cultivated as a shade and ornamental tree. Krüssmann (1985) listed 18 principal forms and cultivars and Dirr (1998) noted that the cultivars are too numerous to be listed in detail in his general volume on woody plants.

The white pine weevil is the tree's greatest insect pest affecting both timber quality and volume. Terminal leaders may be killed repeatedly and result in such serious stem crooks that the tree has reduced merchantable saw timber value.

The pales weevil is an insect that often attacks white pine seedlings in areas where white pine timber has been cut recently. Cone crops may be destroyed by the pine cone beetle. This insect compounds the problem of infrequent seed years and is a serious threat to white pine management.

Diseases, including white pine blister rust, red ring rot, root rot, wood decay, and certain needle fungi, cause losses in white pine stands. Such natural elements as snow, ice, and wind may also cause damage to white pine.

Too numerous to list. The species is available not only through plant nurseries but also through garden shops at large retailers.

Long-cultivated. One of the common names, Weymouth’s pine, honors Lord Weymouth, who planted the tree extensively in England during the 1700s (Krüssmann, 1985).

Seeds of Pinus strobus germinate easily in a range of soils, although seedlings grow best in noncalcareous soils.

There are no documented varieties for reforestation purposes. Local or regional ecotypes are typically utilized for this purpose. There are several varieties available for ornamental applications. Seeds and seedlings are available from most eastern conifer nurseries.

White pine seedlings require weed control for the first few years after outplanting. Chemical and/or mechanical control can be used, preferably starting the year before planting.

Management of white pine should focus on thwarting the white pine weevil where straight trunks and tree form is desired. Growing white pine where there will be partial shade on the developing saplings and pole-sized trees (especially on the terminal leader) seems to reduce infestation by the weevil. Thus growing white pine in mixed uneven aged stands is a good idea to avoid this pest and those described below.

Timber: The wood of white pine is light, durable, and easy to work. It is good lumber for toys, boxes, cabinet work, and similar items.

Christmas tree and ornamental: White pine is used occasionally in Christmas tree plantations and as ornamental planting in landscaping around homes and office buildings. It can also be sheared as a hedge.

Wildlife: It has fair wildlife value. Gray and red squirrels, deer, mice and 16 species of songbirds have been known to eat the seed.

Erosion control: White pine is frequently used for windbreaks and screens along fields new right-of-ways and around campsites.

Pinus strobus is cultivated extensively as a shade tree in the United States and adjacent Canada, east of the Great Plains. It also has been grown in plantations for its lumber within this region. It apparently is no longer planted very often in the Old World.

Daniel Moerman’s online database of Native American ethnobotanical uses includes 90 records for Pinus strobus (see also Moerman, 1998). The uses are too numerous to list fully here. Mainly, the bark was used in poultices for various ailments ranging from colds to coughs, pain, and skin disorders. An infusion of the bark also was ingested for coughs and as an emetic. An infusion of the young growth was used to treat a variety of ailments ranging from lung to kidney disorders and boiled young growth was used as an inhalant for coughs and colds. The pitch was applied to boils.

Eastern white pine is an important commercial timber species that produces superior-quality cut lumber for construction uses. The soft wood is easily worked, and the species also provides lumber for cabinetry, furniture-making, handcrafts, and other minor uses.

Pines in general are toxic. Cattle and to some extent sheep that ingest needles, young shoots, or bark during pregnancy are prone to producing weak or dead calves, apparently because some compounds in pines disrupt reproductive hormones (Burrows and Tyrl, 2001). However, apparently Pinus strobus in particular has not been studied. Most of the problems associated with this toxicity are in western states where other species of pines occur. In areas where other winter browse has been exhausted, deer that ingest pines apparently do not suffer any symptoms of poisoning.

• Dr. Aljos Farjon
• Dr. Aaron Liston

• USDA Plants Profile for Pinus strobus
• USDA Forest Service Index of Species Information: Pinus strobus
• A Database of Foods, Drugs, Dyes and Fibers of Native American Peoples, Derived from Plants
• Forest Pathology: White Pine Blister Rust
• Pinus strobus information from the Global Compendium of Weeds (GCW)