Table of Contents
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Overview
Brief Summary
Pinaceae -- Pine family
David F. Van Haverbeke
European black pine (Pinus nigra), also called Austrian pine, was one of the early tree introductions into the United States, first reported in cultivation in 1759 (52). Black pine was one of the first conifers tested for adaptability in the Sandhills of Nebraska in the 1891 Bruner plantation, Holt County, and in 1909 on the Nebraska National Forest. It was also planted by homesteaders on the Great Plains in the early 1900's to provide beauty and protection from wind and snow on the treeless prairies.
The most common seed sources of European black pine introduced into the United States have been from Austria and the Balkans (69). Sources from other parts of the natural range are relatively scarce in this country, except in a few arboreta. The best of these, however, grow as much as 50 percent faster than the typical Austrian sources. Today, European black pine is one of the most common introduced ornamentals in the United States.
David F. Van Haverbeke
European black pine (Pinus nigra), also called Austrian pine, was one of the early tree introductions into the United States, first reported in cultivation in 1759 (52). Black pine was one of the first conifers tested for adaptability in the Sandhills of Nebraska in the 1891 Bruner plantation, Holt County, and in 1909 on the Nebraska National Forest. It was also planted by homesteaders on the Great Plains in the early 1900's to provide beauty and protection from wind and snow on the treeless prairies.
The most common seed sources of European black pine introduced into the United States have been from Austria and the Balkans (69). Sources from other parts of the natural range are relatively scarce in this country, except in a few arboreta. The best of these, however, grow as much as 50 percent faster than the typical Austrian sources. Today, European black pine is one of the most common introduced ornamentals in the United States.
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
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Not only is black pine more resistant to sea wind than the Scots pine. The Corsican black pine can reach the ripe age of 600 years! Understandably, most of the conifers planted in the dunes are black pine species. Nevertheless, they don't grow well if they receive the full blast of sea wind and therefore are often sheltered by a stretch of deciduous trees. Thanks to these pines, there are many new species of birds, plants and mushrooms living and growing in the dunes and on the Wadden Islands. Besides the Corsican pines, Austrian pines are also a common species found planted in Dutch forests.
© Copyright Ecomare
Source:
Ecomare
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Distribution
European black pine is native to Europe and Asia. Its range there
extends from Spain and Morocco east to eastern Turkey, south to Cypress,
and north to northeastern Austria and the Crimea, Russia. In the United
States European black pine widely planted in northern states in New
England, around the Great Lakes, and in the Northwest. It has
naturalized in New England and the Great Lakes States [21].
extends from Spain and Morocco east to eastern Turkey, south to Cypress,
and north to northeastern Austria and the Crimea, Russia. In the United
States European black pine widely planted in northern states in New
England, around the Great Lakes, and in the Northwest. It has
naturalized in New England and the Great Lakes States [21].
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Physical Description
Morphology
Description
Trees to 50 m in native range; bark gray or dark brown; branchlets pale brown or orange-brown, glabrous; winter buds ovoid or cylindric-ovoid, slightly resinous. Needles 2 per bundle, pale or dark green, straight or curved, 4-19 cm × 1-2 mm, somewhat rigid, resin canals 3-17, median, base with persistent sheath. Seed cones subsessile, yellowish or pale brown, shiny, 3-8 × 2-4 cm, deciduous. Apophyses slightly or obtusely keeled; umbo mucronate.
© Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Source:
Missouri Botanical Garden
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Description
European black pine is an introduced, medium-sized, two-needle pine [7].
Mature height (approximately 80 years of age [21]) ranges from 66 to 165
feet (20-50 m) [11]. Some characters vary depending on the subspecific
taxon; the type variety has dark brown to black bark that is widely
split by flaking fissures into scaly plates [14]. The bark becomes
increasingly creviced with age [17]. European black pine is
fast growing and usually has a pyramidal form. It has deep lateral
roots. European black pine is long lived; harvest rotation times of up
to 360 years have been used in Europe [21].
Mature height (approximately 80 years of age [21]) ranges from 66 to 165
feet (20-50 m) [11]. Some characters vary depending on the subspecific
taxon; the type variety has dark brown to black bark that is widely
split by flaking fissures into scaly plates [14]. The bark becomes
increasingly creviced with age [17]. European black pine is
fast growing and usually has a pyramidal form. It has deep lateral
roots. European black pine is long lived; harvest rotation times of up
to 360 years have been used in Europe [21].
- 7. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]
- 11. Krugman, Stanley L.; Jenkinson, James L. 1974. Pinaceae--pine family. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 598-637. [1380]
- 14. Mitchell, Alan F. 1972. Conifers in the British Isles: A descriptive handbook. Forestry Commission Booklet No. 33. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 322 p. [20571]
- 17. Rose, C. I. 1979. Observations on the ecology and conservation value of native and introduced tree species. Quarterly Journal of Forestry. 73(4): 219-229. [22219]
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Physical Description
Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins finely serrulate (use magnification or slide your finger along the leaf), Leaf apex acute, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves not blue-green, Needle-like leaves triangular, Needle-like leaves twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 2, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs viscid, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones < 5 cm long, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Seed cones bearing a scarlike umbo, Umbo with obvious prickle, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds green, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
Stephen C. Meyers
Source:
USDA NRCS PLANTS Database
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Ecology
Habitat
Key Plant Community Associations
More info for the term: natural
In Europe trees usually associated with European black pine include
Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), Swiss mountain pine (P. mugo), Aleppo
pine (P. halepinsis), Italian stone pine (P. pinea), and Heldreich pine
(P. heldreichii). In the United States where it has become naturalized,
European black pine may be developing natural associations [21].
In Europe trees usually associated with European black pine include
Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris), Swiss mountain pine (P. mugo), Aleppo
pine (P. halepinsis), Italian stone pine (P. pinea), and Heldreich pine
(P. heldreichii). In the United States where it has become naturalized,
European black pine may be developing natural associations [21].
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Habitat characteristics
European black pine is mainly suited to northern temperate climate zones
in the United States; it does not grow well in the southern states [21].
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are
adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees pines grow well
on a wide range of soil types, Corsican pine grows poorly on
limestone-derived soils, and Crimean pine grows well on poorer,
limestone-derived soils. Most provenances will also show good growth on
podzolic soils. Whatever the soil type, however, the soils need to be
deep for good growth [11,21]. European black pine grows well on high pH
soils in New England. Some provenances exhibit better winter hardiness
than others [21].
In Europe, European black pine is found at elevations ranging from 820
to 5,910 feet (250-1,800 m) [21].
in the United States; it does not grow well in the southern states [21].
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are
adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees pines grow well
on a wide range of soil types, Corsican pine grows poorly on
limestone-derived soils, and Crimean pine grows well on poorer,
limestone-derived soils. Most provenances will also show good growth on
podzolic soils. Whatever the soil type, however, the soils need to be
deep for good growth [11,21]. European black pine grows well on high pH
soils in New England. Some provenances exhibit better winter hardiness
than others [21].
In Europe, European black pine is found at elevations ranging from 820
to 5,910 feet (250-1,800 m) [21].
- 11. Krugman, Stanley L.; Jenkinson, James L. 1974. Pinaceae--pine family. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 598-637. [1380]
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Habitat: Ecosystem
More info on this topic.
This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):
FRES10 White - red - jack pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
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Soils and Topography
European black pine is adapted to many soil types and topographic habitats. In its native range the species commonly is separated into three geographic groupings: western, central, and eastern. Sources from southern France and Spain, the western group, often are indifferent to soil type; sources from Corsica, Italy, and Sicily, the central group, grow poorly on limestone soils; while sources from the Balkans and the Crimea, U.S.S.R., the eastern group, appear to do well on the poorer limestone soils (31). Black pine also grows well on podzolic soils (8).
In England, Austrian material does well as a shelterbelt tree in exposed situations near the sea on light, dry, shallow soils, sands, chalks, and limestone. It is less well-suited than Corsican strains in infertile, "stiff," or wet soils (6).
Although European black pine often is found on poor, calcareous, sandy, and even pure limestone soils, it requires a deep soil. On good sites, Italian, Sicilian, and Corsican strains are fast growing (up to 40 m or 131 ft tall) and straight (23,40).
In Europe, black pine is found at elevations ranging from 250 to 1800 m (820 to 5,910 ft). In Austria, it is found on poor dolomite and limestone sites from 260 to 500 m (850 to 1,640 ft) and on good soils from 300 to 700 m (980 to 2,300 ft); at about 610 m (2,000 ft) in the Dinaric Alps of the Balkans; at 1200 m (3,940 ft) in the Sierra de Segura of southeastern Spain; and from 900 to 1800 m (2,950 to 5,910 ft) on Corsica (40).
In the United States the major experience with European black pine has been with Austrian sources. Most planting stock is provided by private nurseries, and several million trees are produced annually in the Northeastern States. The species has been especially successful in the Northeast on soils of high pH in the southern part of the area formerly planted to red pine (Pinus resinosa) (69). There is evidence, however, that black pine is not a good choice to replace red pine on many northeastern sites (42). After 21 growing seasons, black pine averaged about 2.1 m (7 ft) shorter and 3.2 cm (1.25 in) less in d.b.h. on several New York soil types.
In the Great Plains region, European black pine is not a demanding species and is being planted on soils of the orders Aridisols, Entisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols. More specifically it grows well throughout a broad range of soils including sandy loams, silty clays, and calcareous soils. It is about as adaptable to most Great Plains windbreak and shelterbelt sites as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), although on the very poor sites it suffers considerable mortality. Once established, however, the rate of height growth is good, and density and form of the crown are superior to ponderosa pine (50). Survival, height, vigor, and crown development throughout the Great Plains region are best in deep, permeable, well-drained, and mostly sandy loams along river lowlands and stream valleys where the water table is 6.1 m (20 ft) or less below the surface; they are poorest on shallow, sandy, or silty soils underlain by claypan or gravel.
After early success in the turn of the century plantings in the Nebraska Sandhills, black pine was not considered as desirable for extensive plantings as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), or ponderosa pine. In Iowa, black pine was reported to be tolerant of high-lime soils, where survival and growth were best on western and northern exposures (19).
In England, Austrian material does well as a shelterbelt tree in exposed situations near the sea on light, dry, shallow soils, sands, chalks, and limestone. It is less well-suited than Corsican strains in infertile, "stiff," or wet soils (6).
Although European black pine often is found on poor, calcareous, sandy, and even pure limestone soils, it requires a deep soil. On good sites, Italian, Sicilian, and Corsican strains are fast growing (up to 40 m or 131 ft tall) and straight (23,40).
In Europe, black pine is found at elevations ranging from 250 to 1800 m (820 to 5,910 ft). In Austria, it is found on poor dolomite and limestone sites from 260 to 500 m (850 to 1,640 ft) and on good soils from 300 to 700 m (980 to 2,300 ft); at about 610 m (2,000 ft) in the Dinaric Alps of the Balkans; at 1200 m (3,940 ft) in the Sierra de Segura of southeastern Spain; and from 900 to 1800 m (2,950 to 5,910 ft) on Corsica (40).
In the United States the major experience with European black pine has been with Austrian sources. Most planting stock is provided by private nurseries, and several million trees are produced annually in the Northeastern States. The species has been especially successful in the Northeast on soils of high pH in the southern part of the area formerly planted to red pine (Pinus resinosa) (69). There is evidence, however, that black pine is not a good choice to replace red pine on many northeastern sites (42). After 21 growing seasons, black pine averaged about 2.1 m (7 ft) shorter and 3.2 cm (1.25 in) less in d.b.h. on several New York soil types.
In the Great Plains region, European black pine is not a demanding species and is being planted on soils of the orders Aridisols, Entisols, Mollisols, and Vertisols. More specifically it grows well throughout a broad range of soils including sandy loams, silty clays, and calcareous soils. It is about as adaptable to most Great Plains windbreak and shelterbelt sites as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), although on the very poor sites it suffers considerable mortality. Once established, however, the rate of height growth is good, and density and form of the crown are superior to ponderosa pine (50). Survival, height, vigor, and crown development throughout the Great Plains region are best in deep, permeable, well-drained, and mostly sandy loams along river lowlands and stream valleys where the water table is 6.1 m (20 ft) or less below the surface; they are poorest on shallow, sandy, or silty soils underlain by claypan or gravel.
After early success in the turn of the century plantings in the Nebraska Sandhills, black pine was not considered as desirable for extensive plantings as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), or ponderosa pine. In Iowa, black pine was reported to be tolerant of high-lime soils, where survival and growth were best on western and northern exposures (19).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
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Climate
In parts of its native European habitat, black pine grows in a cool to cold temperate climate (23). The northern varieties are very frost-hardy, withstanding temperatures of -30° C (-22° F), and the southern varieties tolerate -7° C (19° F) temperatures. Annual precipitation varies from 610 to 1020 mm (24 to 40 in). The species has been shown to carry on photosynthesis at -5° C (23° F), with respiration still detectable at -19° C (-2° F) (21). Black pine withstands the weight of ice well and is considered hardy except in the coldest, hottest, and driest regions.
In the United States, black pine is mainly suited to Climatic Zone IV, which includes most of Nova Scotia, southern Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, southern Ontario, Michigan, northern Indiana, northern Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, northern Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, southwestern Alberta, and central British Columbia (52). It has either failed or has performed poorly in the southern states of Oklahoma, Texas, North Carolina, Georgia, northern Florida, and Arkansas.
In the United States, black pine is mainly suited to Climatic Zone IV, which includes most of Nova Scotia, southern Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, southern Ontario, Michigan, northern Indiana, northern Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, northern Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, southwestern Alberta, and central British Columbia (52). It has either failed or has performed poorly in the southern states of Oklahoma, Texas, North Carolina, Georgia, northern Florida, and Arkansas.
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
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Habitat and Ecology
Systems
- Terrestrial
© International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Source:
IUCN
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Habitat & Distribution
Widely cultivated. Beijing Shi, Hubei (Wuhan Shi), Jiangsu (Nanjing Shi), Jiangxi (Lu Shan), Liaoning, Shandong, Zhejiang [native to NW Africa, SW Asia, S Europe]
© Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
Source:
Missouri Botanical Garden
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Associations
In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Amanita singeri is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Anungitea dematiaceous anamorph of Anungitea continua is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Pinus nigra
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Chroogomphus rutilus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Foodplant / parasite
amphigenous pycnium of Coleosporium tussilaginis parasitises live needle of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Digitosporium dematiaceous anamorph of Crumenulopsis sororia is saprobic on dead branch (small) of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 4-5
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces variisporus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Dendrodochium anamorph of Dendrodochium pinastri is saprobic on branch of Pinus nigra
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Geastrum minimum is associated with Pinus nigra
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Geastrum triplex is associated with Pinus nigra
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Leptoglossus occidentalis sucks sap of unripe seed (in 1-year old cone) of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 5-8
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / parasite
subcuticular or partially subepidermal pycnium of Melampsora populnea parasitises live needle of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 5-6
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / pathogen
Dothistroma coelomycetous anamorph of Mycosphaerella pini infects and damages live needle of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / pathogen
fruitbody of Phaeolus schweinitzii infects and damages live root of mature tree of Pinus nigra
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiopsis gigantea is saprobic on dead, decayed trunk (cut end) of Pinus nigra
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula torulosa is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, becoming erumpeny conidioma of Strasseria coelomycetous anamorph of Strasseria geniculata is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 1-5
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Stypella dubia is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus nigra
Other: unusual host/prey
Foodplant / secondary infection
erumpent pycnidium of Sclerophoma coelomycetous anamorph of Sydowia polyspora secondarily infects gall-midge infected leaf of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma batschii is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyela curva feeds within unripe male catkin (sporophylls) of Pinus nigra
Other: sole host/prey
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Amanita singeri is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Anungitea dematiaceous anamorph of Anungitea continua is saprobic on dead, fallen needle of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Pinus nigra
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Chroogomphus rutilus is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Foodplant / parasite
amphigenous pycnium of Coleosporium tussilaginis parasitises live needle of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Digitosporium dematiaceous anamorph of Crumenulopsis sororia is saprobic on dead branch (small) of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 4-5
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Dacrymyces variisporus is saprobic on decayed wood of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Dendrodochium anamorph of Dendrodochium pinastri is saprobic on branch of Pinus nigra
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Geastrum minimum is associated with Pinus nigra
Plant / associate
fruitbody of Geastrum triplex is associated with Pinus nigra
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / sap sucker
nymph of Leptoglossus occidentalis sucks sap of unripe seed (in 1-year old cone) of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 5-8
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / parasite
subcuticular or partially subepidermal pycnium of Melampsora populnea parasitises live needle of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 5-6
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / pathogen
Dothistroma coelomycetous anamorph of Mycosphaerella pini infects and damages live needle of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / pathogen
fruitbody of Phaeolus schweinitzii infects and damages live root of mature tree of Pinus nigra
Other: minor host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Phlebiopsis gigantea is saprobic on dead, decayed trunk (cut end) of Pinus nigra
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Russula torulosa is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Remarks: Other: uncertain
Other: major host/prey
Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, becoming erumpeny conidioma of Strasseria coelomycetous anamorph of Strasseria geniculata is saprobic on dead twig of Pinus nigra
Remarks: season: 1-5
Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Stypella dubia is saprobic on dead, decayed wood of Pinus nigra
Other: unusual host/prey
Foodplant / secondary infection
erumpent pycnidium of Sclerophoma coelomycetous anamorph of Sydowia polyspora secondarily infects gall-midge infected leaf of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / mycorrhiza / ectomycorrhiza
fruitbody of Tricholoma batschii is ectomycorrhizal with live root of Pinus nigra
Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Xyela curva feeds within unripe male catkin (sporophylls) of Pinus nigra
Other: sole host/prey
© BioImages
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Associated Forest Cover
European black pine in its many forms grows naturally throughout the Mediterranean region in association with Scotch pine, Swiss mountain pine (Pinus mugo), Aleppo pine (P. halepensis), Italian stone pine (P. pinea), and Heldreich pine (P. heldreichii) (11,40,69). Other pine species that share the same geographic range or portions of it with European black pine include Swiss stone pine (P. cembra), Balkan pine (P. peuce), maritime pine (P. pinaster), and P. brutia and its variant P. pithyusa (11). In England some naturally regenerating European black pines, from principally Corsican sources, are associated with birch (Betula pendula), willows (Salix caprea and S. cinerea), and oak (Quercus robur) on the sand dunes, saltmarshes, and intertidal sand and mudflats of the north Norfolk coast (27).
In the United States, European black pine is associated with numerous species consequent to its use in landscape and environmental plantings. Its apparent tendency to escape, possibly to naturalize, and to hybridize with certain other pines may, in time, result in some natural species associations in this country.
In the United States, European black pine is associated with numerous species consequent to its use in landscape and environmental plantings. Its apparent tendency to escape, possibly to naturalize, and to hybridize with certain other pines may, in time, result in some natural species associations in this country.
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
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Diseases and Parasites
Damaging Agents
European black pine is susceptible to infection by many pathogens that damage seedlings, foliage, stems, and roots (26). Damping-off and seedling root rots, caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Phytophthora cactorum, and Pythium debaryanum, and loss of seedling vigor caused by the dagger nematode (Xiphinema americanum) (45) are among the most common causes of seedling damage in nurseries.
Dothistroma needle blight, caused by the fungus Dothistroma pini, is one of the most damaging of the foliage diseases of black pine. The fungus has been found in 23 States in the United States and in three Provinces in Canada. Dothistroma needle blight is widespread and causes extensive damage to Austrian pine in Christmas tree plantings in Minnesota (43), and in shelterbelt, ornamental, and Christmas tree plantings in the central and southern Great Plains (48). Infection of current-year needles first occurs in mid-July, while infection of second-year needles begins in late May in the Great Plains and in British Columbia. Symptoms develop in early September to early November and consist of yellow and tan spots and bands that appear water-soaked on the needles. The bands and spots may turn brown to reddish brown, and the distal end of the needle becomes chlorotic, then necrotic, while the base of the needle remains green. Infected needles are cast prematurely (46).
Genetic resistance to Dothistroma needle blight has been detected in European black pine. In a Nebraska test of 21 geographic sources (51), some individual trees within 16 sources were highly resistant, while those from one Yugoslavian source showed universally high resistance (48).
Lophodermium needle cast of pines, caused by Lophodermium pinastri, is a serious disease of European black pine in the Lake States, causing browning and premature dropping of needles and terminal bud dieback (60). A needle disease caused by the fungus Nemacyclus minor has been reported from Pennsylvania (38).
Diplodia tip blight, caused by the fungus Diplodia pinea, is a very damaging twig and stem disease of European black pine, especially to trees more than 30 years old. Entire new shoots are killed rapidly by the fungus. Trees repeatedly infected have some branches killed back to the main stem (47).
Black pine seedlings in nurseries are susceptible to the fungi Cylindrocladium scoparium and C. floridanum. These fungi cause root rot, damping-off, and needle blight (9).
Damage to black pine by insects and other pests is apparently of lesser consequence than that from fungal pathogens. The species has been reported to be injured by pine aphids, pine beetles, and pine weevils, but growing trees, on the whole, are relatively free from insect pests (12). Damage by rabbits and sapsuckers has been noted (19,42).
Some incidence of attack in northeastern United States from the Zimmerman pine moth (Dioryctria zimmermani), the European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer), and the European pine shoot moth has been observed (68).
Dothistroma needle blight, caused by the fungus Dothistroma pini, is one of the most damaging of the foliage diseases of black pine. The fungus has been found in 23 States in the United States and in three Provinces in Canada. Dothistroma needle blight is widespread and causes extensive damage to Austrian pine in Christmas tree plantings in Minnesota (43), and in shelterbelt, ornamental, and Christmas tree plantings in the central and southern Great Plains (48). Infection of current-year needles first occurs in mid-July, while infection of second-year needles begins in late May in the Great Plains and in British Columbia. Symptoms develop in early September to early November and consist of yellow and tan spots and bands that appear water-soaked on the needles. The bands and spots may turn brown to reddish brown, and the distal end of the needle becomes chlorotic, then necrotic, while the base of the needle remains green. Infected needles are cast prematurely (46).
Genetic resistance to Dothistroma needle blight has been detected in European black pine. In a Nebraska test of 21 geographic sources (51), some individual trees within 16 sources were highly resistant, while those from one Yugoslavian source showed universally high resistance (48).
Lophodermium needle cast of pines, caused by Lophodermium pinastri, is a serious disease of European black pine in the Lake States, causing browning and premature dropping of needles and terminal bud dieback (60). A needle disease caused by the fungus Nemacyclus minor has been reported from Pennsylvania (38).
Diplodia tip blight, caused by the fungus Diplodia pinea, is a very damaging twig and stem disease of European black pine, especially to trees more than 30 years old. Entire new shoots are killed rapidly by the fungus. Trees repeatedly infected have some branches killed back to the main stem (47).
Black pine seedlings in nurseries are susceptible to the fungi Cylindrocladium scoparium and C. floridanum. These fungi cause root rot, damping-off, and needle blight (9).
Damage to black pine by insects and other pests is apparently of lesser consequence than that from fungal pathogens. The species has been reported to be injured by pine aphids, pine beetles, and pine weevils, but growing trees, on the whole, are relatively free from insect pests (12). Damage by rabbits and sapsuckers has been noted (19,42).
Some incidence of attack in northeastern United States from the Zimmerman pine moth (Dioryctria zimmermani), the European pine sawfly (Neodiprion sertifer), and the European pine shoot moth has been observed (68).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
General Ecology
Post-fire Regeneration
Tree without adventitious-bud root crown
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Regeneration Processes
More info for the term: fresh
European black pine attains sexual maturity at ages ranging from 15 to
40 years. Trees from Corsican sources in England produce their first
heavy seed crops at 25 to 30 years of age, with maximum production at 60
to 90 years of age. Large seed crops are produced at 2- to 5-year
intervals [21]. The winged seeds are wind dispersed [11]. Fresh seed
does not require stratification for good germination, but stored seeds
can be cold stratified for up to 60 days to hasten germination [11].
European black pine can be propagated by grafting [21].
European black pine attains sexual maturity at ages ranging from 15 to
40 years. Trees from Corsican sources in England produce their first
heavy seed crops at 25 to 30 years of age, with maximum production at 60
to 90 years of age. Large seed crops are produced at 2- to 5-year
intervals [21]. The winged seeds are wind dispersed [11]. Fresh seed
does not require stratification for good germination, but stored seeds
can be cold stratified for up to 60 days to hasten germination [11].
European black pine can be propagated by grafting [21].
- 11. Krugman, Stanley L.; Jenkinson, James L. 1974. Pinaceae--pine family. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 598-637. [1380]
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)
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Immediate Effect of Fire
No specific information on the effect of fire on European black pine is
available in the English language literature.
available in the English language literature.
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Fire Ecology
In Europe, European black pine is associated with Scotch pine, a species
which is maintained by periodic fire. No information on the fire
adapations of European black pine is available in the English language
literature.
which is maintained by periodic fire. No information on the fire
adapations of European black pine is available in the English language
literature.
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Successional Status
More info on this topic.
Facultative Seral Species
European black pine is intolerant of shade and needs to be planted in
full sun [21,22]. In England direct sowing of European black pine seeds
is successful on north-facing slopes on young sand dunes [21]. European
black pine (Corsican pine) plantations in England develop a more closed
canopy than similar-aged plantations of Scotch pine [17].
Facultative Seral Species
European black pine is intolerant of shade and needs to be planted in
full sun [21,22]. In England direct sowing of European black pine seeds
is successful on north-facing slopes on young sand dunes [21]. European
black pine (Corsican pine) plantations in England develop a more closed
canopy than similar-aged plantations of Scotch pine [17].
- 17. Rose, C. I. 1979. Observations on the ecology and conservation value of native and introduced tree species. Quarterly Journal of Forestry. 73(4): 219-229. [22219]
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
- 22. Vogel, Willis G. 1981. A guide for revegetating coal minespoils in the eastern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-68. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 190 p. [15577]
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Reaction to Competition
European black pine is classed as intolerant of shade, and, therefore, must be planted in situations where it will receive full sunlight. Those from Austria and the Balkans have received increasing attention during recent decades from foresters and Christmas tree growers in the Northeastern United States as an alternative to red pine, which has been heavily damaged by the European pine shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana). It has proven especially successful on soils of high pH in the southern part of the area formerly planted to red pine (69).
At Ithaca, NY, a series of four-paired, quarter-acre plots of red pine and black pine were established on a series of somewhat poorly drained to excessively well-drained acidic, silty loam, and other associated soils typical of New York's southern tier, to compare their performances. After 21 growing seasons, black pine averaged about 1.8 m (6 ft) in height and 3.2 cm (1.25 in) in diameter less than red pine over all sites. Branches were usually thicker and closer together, suggesting slower early height growth; stems suffered sapsucker damage, and the trees had many double forks and malformed shoots. These tests suggested that European black pine, from this source at least, was a poor choice to replace red pine on many northeastern sites (42).
In the Great Plains shelterbelt planting, European black pine was frequently intermixed with ponderosa pine within the same row. Survival was about 5 percent better and height growth was about 0.7 m (2.3 ft) more for black pine over a 12- to 19-year period on the deep to medium, permeable, well-drained silty and sandy loams of loess origin (50). Heights of trees also were more uniform within black pine rows because of freedom from damage by tip moths (Rhyacionia spp.). Density and form of crowns also were superior to ponderosa pine.
In West Virginia, 10 sources of European black pine, ponderosa pine, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), and European alder (Alnus glutinosa) were tested on strip mine spoils. Although all hardwood species grew faster than the pines, Yugoslavian sources grew faster and survived best of all other black pine sources (29).
At Ithaca, NY, a series of four-paired, quarter-acre plots of red pine and black pine were established on a series of somewhat poorly drained to excessively well-drained acidic, silty loam, and other associated soils typical of New York's southern tier, to compare their performances. After 21 growing seasons, black pine averaged about 1.8 m (6 ft) in height and 3.2 cm (1.25 in) in diameter less than red pine over all sites. Branches were usually thicker and closer together, suggesting slower early height growth; stems suffered sapsucker damage, and the trees had many double forks and malformed shoots. These tests suggested that European black pine, from this source at least, was a poor choice to replace red pine on many northeastern sites (42).
In the Great Plains shelterbelt planting, European black pine was frequently intermixed with ponderosa pine within the same row. Survival was about 5 percent better and height growth was about 0.7 m (2.3 ft) more for black pine over a 12- to 19-year period on the deep to medium, permeable, well-drained silty and sandy loams of loess origin (50). Heights of trees also were more uniform within black pine rows because of freedom from damage by tip moths (Rhyacionia spp.). Density and form of crowns also were superior to ponderosa pine.
In West Virginia, 10 sources of European black pine, ponderosa pine, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), and European alder (Alnus glutinosa) were tested on strip mine spoils. Although all hardwood species grew faster than the pines, Yugoslavian sources grew faster and survived best of all other black pine sources (29).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Rooting Habit
All varieties of European black pine are considered to be deep laterally rooted and, therefore, to perform best in deep soils (22,49).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Life History and Behavior
Cyclicity
Phenology
More info on this topic.
In Ontario European black pine pollen is released from May to June.
Individual ovulate cones are only receptive to pollen for approximately
3 days, but collectively are receptive from May to June. Fertilization
takes place 13 months after pollination. Cones mature from September to
November and seeds are dispersed from October to November [21].
In Ontario European black pine pollen is released from May to June.
Individual ovulate cones are only receptive to pollen for approximately
3 days, but collectively are receptive from May to June. Fertilization
takes place 13 months after pollination. Cones mature from September to
November and seeds are dispersed from October to November [21].
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Reproduction
Vegetative Reproduction
At present, grafting is the most common method for vegetatively propagating European black pine. Needle fascicles have been rooted, but only fascicles from 1-year-old short shoots on young (5-year-old) plants were able to form callus or to root. Propagation by cuttings and air-layering has not been reported.
The side graft method is the usual practice, but cleft and veneer grafts can also be used. Grafting is done on actively growing stock, and removal of the stock by pruning must be gradual after scion growth begins.
Stock-scion incompatibility in black pine is not a serious problem, especially if the stock and the scion are of the same race. Black pine can be grafted onto Pinus sylvestris, P. resinosa, P. khasya, P. montana, P. mugo, and P. contorta; but semi-incompatibility has been found with P. ponderosa, P. radiata, and P. armandii (67).
Research in Yugoslavia indicates that a wide range of auxin concentrations, can promote the development of rootable plantlets from shoot tip explants (30).
The side graft method is the usual practice, but cleft and veneer grafts can also be used. Grafting is done on actively growing stock, and removal of the stock by pruning must be gradual after scion growth begins.
Stock-scion incompatibility in black pine is not a serious problem, especially if the stock and the scion are of the same race. Black pine can be grafted onto Pinus sylvestris, P. resinosa, P. khasya, P. montana, P. mugo, and P. contorta; but semi-incompatibility has been found with P. ponderosa, P. radiata, and P. armandii (67).
Research in Yugoslavia indicates that a wide range of auxin concentrations, can promote the development of rootable plantlets from shoot tip explants (30).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Seedling Development
European black pine is easily grown from seed and transplants well. Fresh seeds require no pre-sowing stratification; but stored seeds can be cold-stratified up to 60 days to hasten germination. Ninety-nine percent germination was obtained from seeds stored 10 years in closed containers at 6.6 percent moisture content (ovendry-weight basis) at 0° to 2° C (32° to 36° F). No loss of viability occurred in seeds stored in sealed containers at room temperature after 2 years. Storage at moisture contents as low as 2 percent or as high as 12 percent, however, was detrimental to seeds stored for long periods (25). A light period of 8 hours at 30° C (86° F) and a dark period of 20° C (68° F) for 16 hours is recommended for germination (24). Germination is epigeal (31). Seeds from Corsican sources tend to germinate more slowly than those from Austria and Calabria (55).
In nurseries, nonstratified seeds are sown in the fall or spring, at a density to obtain 540 to 650 seedlings per square meter (50 to 60/ft²). Seeds should be sown at a depth of 13 to 19 mm (0.5 to 0.75 in).
Black pine seedlings can be produced in peat-perlite containers using low rates of fertilizers (e.g. Osmocote 18N-2.6P-10K) (1). Experiments with 3-year-old nursery seedlings from 27 different European provenance locations demonstrated that nitrogen and manganese ion uptake was significantly enhanced, but that uptake of potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, boron, zinc, and aluminum ions was suppressed by 45 percent urea (33). Application of a pre-emergence herbicide was found to enhance mycorrhizal formation in nursery-grown seedlings (61).
In Germany, seedlings of all provenances of black pine from Corsica, Spain, and southern France suffered severe frost damage in the nursery, and those from southern Italy suffered some damage; but seedlings from eastern provenances (Austria, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Cyprus) were undamaged (54). Experience in the United States strongly suggests that black pine seed be obtained from the Balkan Peninsula or from the Crimea, for improved winter hardiness (32).
Nursery-grown seedlings are commonly field-planted as 2-0, 2-1, or 2-2 seedlings. Field-plantable seedlings can be greenhouse grown in containers in 9 months following a predetermined schedule of temperature, moisture, relative humidity, and nutrient application (62).
In England, germination success of direct-sown Corsican black pine seed was found to be strongly dependent on aspect; satisfactory germination was achieved on north-facing slopes on young sand dunes nearest the sea (27). Newly germinated seedlings suffered very heavy losses from voles and rabbits but became unpalatable to them within 2 months.
In nurseries, nonstratified seeds are sown in the fall or spring, at a density to obtain 540 to 650 seedlings per square meter (50 to 60/ft²). Seeds should be sown at a depth of 13 to 19 mm (0.5 to 0.75 in).
Black pine seedlings can be produced in peat-perlite containers using low rates of fertilizers (e.g. Osmocote 18N-2.6P-10K) (1). Experiments with 3-year-old nursery seedlings from 27 different European provenance locations demonstrated that nitrogen and manganese ion uptake was significantly enhanced, but that uptake of potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, boron, zinc, and aluminum ions was suppressed by 45 percent urea (33). Application of a pre-emergence herbicide was found to enhance mycorrhizal formation in nursery-grown seedlings (61).
In Germany, seedlings of all provenances of black pine from Corsica, Spain, and southern France suffered severe frost damage in the nursery, and those from southern Italy suffered some damage; but seedlings from eastern provenances (Austria, Yugoslavia, Greece, and Cyprus) were undamaged (54). Experience in the United States strongly suggests that black pine seed be obtained from the Balkan Peninsula or from the Crimea, for improved winter hardiness (32).
Nursery-grown seedlings are commonly field-planted as 2-0, 2-1, or 2-2 seedlings. Field-plantable seedlings can be greenhouse grown in containers in 9 months following a predetermined schedule of temperature, moisture, relative humidity, and nutrient application (62).
In England, germination success of direct-sown Corsican black pine seed was found to be strongly dependent on aspect; satisfactory germination was achieved on north-facing slopes on young sand dunes nearest the sea (27). Newly germinated seedlings suffered very heavy losses from voles and rabbits but became unpalatable to them within 2 months.
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Seed Production and Dissemination
Seeds are dispersed from October through November of the second growing season. Seeds are reddish brown, often mottled, 6.4 mm (0.25 in) long at one end of a membranous wing 19 mm (0.75 in) long (49). Two winged seeds are produced on the upper surface of each scale of the cone except for those at the tip and base.
Seeds are extracted from harvested cones by air-drying for 3 to 10 days or kiln-drying at 46° C (115° F) for 24 hours. Sound seeds are separated from empty seeds by flotation in 95 percent ethanol (31). The number of sound seeds per cone in Austrian black pine ranges from 30 to 40, of which 15 to 20 are germinable (67).
Cleaned seeds average 57,300 per kilogram (26,000/lb) with a range from 30,900 to 86,000/kg (14,000 to 39,000/lb). Seeds from the Crimea, Turkey, and Cyprus tend to be the largest, ranging from 38,600 to 45,900/kg (17,500 to 20,800/lb), and those from Corsica the smallest, ranging from 61,700 to 79,400/kg (28,000 to 36,000/lb) (31,67).
Seeds are extracted from harvested cones by air-drying for 3 to 10 days or kiln-drying at 46° C (115° F) for 24 hours. Sound seeds are separated from empty seeds by flotation in 95 percent ethanol (31). The number of sound seeds per cone in Austrian black pine ranges from 30 to 40, of which 15 to 20 are germinable (67).
Cleaned seeds average 57,300 per kilogram (26,000/lb) with a range from 30,900 to 86,000/kg (14,000 to 39,000/lb). Seeds from the Crimea, Turkey, and Cyprus tend to be the largest, ranging from 38,600 to 45,900/kg (17,500 to 20,800/lb), and those from Corsica the smallest, ranging from 61,700 to 79,400/kg (28,000 to 36,000/lb) (31,67).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Flowering and Fruiting
European black pine is monoecious, with staminate (microsporangiate) and ovulate (megasporangiate) strobili borne separately on the same tree (67). Staminate strobili, clustered at the base of new shoots, mostly on older lateral branches in the lower crown, are cylindrical, short-stalked, bright yellow, about 2 cm (0.8 in) long with numerous scales, and contain pollen in great quantity (12,49,52).
One or two ovulate strobili (conelets) emerge near the end of the new growth of terminal and lateral branches; they are cylindrical, small, bright red, and short-stalked or sessile (12,49,67). Pollen dispersal and conelet receptivity occur from May to June. Individual ovulate conelets are receptive for the pollen for only about 3 days, however (67). After pollen dispersal, the staminate strobili dry and fall within several weeks. The scales of the ovulate strobili close within a few days of pollination, and the conelets begin a slow developmental process. At the beginning of the second growing season, the ovulate strobili are only about 2 cm (0.8 in) long (47). Fertilization takes place in the spring or early summer about 13 months after pollination, and the cones, now turned green in color begin to grow rapidly from about May until maturity in the fall (67).
The fruit, a tough, coarse, woody, yellow-green cone during the pre-ripening second summer, changes to shiny yellow-brown to light brown at maturity from September to November of the second growing season (12,49,52). Cones are descending, sessile, ovoid, and 5 to 8 cm (2 to 3 in) long. Cone scales are shiny, thickened at the apex, and end in a short spine on the dorsal umbo.
Minimum seed bearing age is 15 to 40 years (40,52,67). In England, black pine from Corsican sources produce their first heavy cone crops at ages 25 to 30 years and reach maximum production between 60 and 90 years of age (27). The interval between large cone crops is 2 to 5 years.
One or two ovulate strobili (conelets) emerge near the end of the new growth of terminal and lateral branches; they are cylindrical, small, bright red, and short-stalked or sessile (12,49,67). Pollen dispersal and conelet receptivity occur from May to June. Individual ovulate conelets are receptive for the pollen for only about 3 days, however (67). After pollen dispersal, the staminate strobili dry and fall within several weeks. The scales of the ovulate strobili close within a few days of pollination, and the conelets begin a slow developmental process. At the beginning of the second growing season, the ovulate strobili are only about 2 cm (0.8 in) long (47). Fertilization takes place in the spring or early summer about 13 months after pollination, and the cones, now turned green in color begin to grow rapidly from about May until maturity in the fall (67).
The fruit, a tough, coarse, woody, yellow-green cone during the pre-ripening second summer, changes to shiny yellow-brown to light brown at maturity from September to November of the second growing season (12,49,52). Cones are descending, sessile, ovoid, and 5 to 8 cm (2 to 3 in) long. Cone scales are shiny, thickened at the apex, and end in a short spine on the dorsal umbo.
Minimum seed bearing age is 15 to 40 years (40,52,67). In England, black pine from Corsican sources produce their first heavy cone crops at ages 25 to 30 years and reach maximum production between 60 and 90 years of age (27). The interval between large cone crops is 2 to 5 years.
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Growth
Growth and Yield
European black pine transplants well when small, or when larger if transplanted in the dormant season (49). It is a fast and vigorously growing tree of pyramidal form with full, dark foliage. In England, its habit has been described as bushy in youth, presenting a coarse appearance and having poor stem form; this severely limits its timber value, although it grows rapidly, is hardy, and provides an excellent windbreak (6).
In the Great Plains region black pine grows relatively rapidly during the first 20 years after planting-approximately 0.3 m (1 ft) per year on the average site (57). Similar rates of growth have been reported in Iowa, where 12-year-old trees average 3.9 m (12.9 ft) in height (19). The fastest growing source in a Nebraska provenance study, a disease resistant source from Yugoslavia, was 5.9 m (19.4 ft) tall at age 12 (51) and 9.7 m (31.8 ft) tall at age 20 (64). Average heights of 4.4 m (14.5 ft) and diameters of 13.5 cm (5.3 in) were recorded in a 15-year-old Michigan provenance plantation (68).
The average growth rate of European black pine in Great Plains shelterbelts decreases 7.6 cm (3.0 in) per year from about age 20, so that annual height increase is only 6.1 to 9.1 cm (2.4 to 3.6 in) 50 years after planting. Height growth in the Loess Plains of Nebraska compares favorably with height growth in Europe up to age 50. Height growth in Europe, however, is slower during the early years and faster after 40 to 50 years (57).
A 25-year-old stand of planted black pine in Michigan State University's Kellogg Forest is similar in growth to red pine stands on the same forest and, like them, is being thinned for pulpwood and pruned for timber production (69). Use of faster growing black pine sources does not cause the production of lower wood quality (34).
Forest plantings established in the North Central and Northeastern United States during recent decades are generally thrifty. Data on growth of older stands, however, is limited to a few relatively small plantings, such as the group of 50-year-old trees in the University of Michigan's Nichols Arboretum at Ann Arbor. These trees are similar in growth rate to nearby red pine, Scotch pine, and eastern white pine (P. strobus) (69). European black pine, in the Secrest Arboretum at Ohio State University's Agricultural Research and Development Center in Wooster, OH, has performed as follows (3):
Age Average d.b.h. Average height yr cm in m ft 10 9.7 3.8 5.3 17.4 13 10.7 4.2 6.3 20.6 19 14.2 5.6 9.6 31.5 24 16.0 6.3 11.7 38.5 25 18.0 7.1 11.8 38.8 31 17.8 7.0 14.5 47.7 40 22.4 8.8 17.1 56.0 45 24.1 9.5 17.6 57.7 At age 45, the above trees would produce about 0.4 m³ (14 ft³) of wood per tree.
Height growth of Corsican material in England was proportional to the preceding winter's rainfall from October to March if soil moisture was below field capacity, and volume increment was proportional to the preceding year's height growth. Diameter growth began when the mean 5-day temperature rose to 10° C (50° F) and ended when the mean temperature fell below 10° C (50° F) (56). Wood density of Corsican black pine grown in England was higher than that of other commercially grown exotics, and resin contents as high as 20 percent were found in the heartwood of individual trees (10).
European black pine matures at about 80 years of age, commonly developing a flat, round, or spreading crown. The species attains heights of 20.1 to 50.3 m (66 to 165 ft) (52,69). Minimum rotation periods of 160 to 180 years have been reported for black pine in Corsica, 240 to 360 years being the normal to produce trees 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter (12).
In the Great Plains region black pine grows relatively rapidly during the first 20 years after planting-approximately 0.3 m (1 ft) per year on the average site (57). Similar rates of growth have been reported in Iowa, where 12-year-old trees average 3.9 m (12.9 ft) in height (19). The fastest growing source in a Nebraska provenance study, a disease resistant source from Yugoslavia, was 5.9 m (19.4 ft) tall at age 12 (51) and 9.7 m (31.8 ft) tall at age 20 (64). Average heights of 4.4 m (14.5 ft) and diameters of 13.5 cm (5.3 in) were recorded in a 15-year-old Michigan provenance plantation (68).
The average growth rate of European black pine in Great Plains shelterbelts decreases 7.6 cm (3.0 in) per year from about age 20, so that annual height increase is only 6.1 to 9.1 cm (2.4 to 3.6 in) 50 years after planting. Height growth in the Loess Plains of Nebraska compares favorably with height growth in Europe up to age 50. Height growth in Europe, however, is slower during the early years and faster after 40 to 50 years (57).
A 25-year-old stand of planted black pine in Michigan State University's Kellogg Forest is similar in growth to red pine stands on the same forest and, like them, is being thinned for pulpwood and pruned for timber production (69). Use of faster growing black pine sources does not cause the production of lower wood quality (34).
Forest plantings established in the North Central and Northeastern United States during recent decades are generally thrifty. Data on growth of older stands, however, is limited to a few relatively small plantings, such as the group of 50-year-old trees in the University of Michigan's Nichols Arboretum at Ann Arbor. These trees are similar in growth rate to nearby red pine, Scotch pine, and eastern white pine (P. strobus) (69). European black pine, in the Secrest Arboretum at Ohio State University's Agricultural Research and Development Center in Wooster, OH, has performed as follows (3):
Age Average d.b.h. Average height yr cm in m ft 10 9.7 3.8 5.3 17.4 13 10.7 4.2 6.3 20.6 19 14.2 5.6 9.6 31.5 24 16.0 6.3 11.7 38.5 25 18.0 7.1 11.8 38.8 31 17.8 7.0 14.5 47.7 40 22.4 8.8 17.1 56.0 45 24.1 9.5 17.6 57.7 At age 45, the above trees would produce about 0.4 m³ (14 ft³) of wood per tree.
Height growth of Corsican material in England was proportional to the preceding winter's rainfall from October to March if soil moisture was below field capacity, and volume increment was proportional to the preceding year's height growth. Diameter growth began when the mean 5-day temperature rose to 10° C (50° F) and ended when the mean temperature fell below 10° C (50° F) (56). Wood density of Corsican black pine grown in England was higher than that of other commercially grown exotics, and resin contents as high as 20 percent were found in the heartwood of individual trees (10).
European black pine matures at about 80 years of age, commonly developing a flat, round, or spreading crown. The species attains heights of 20.1 to 50.3 m (66 to 165 ft) (52,69). Minimum rotation periods of 160 to 180 years have been reported for black pine in Corsica, 240 to 360 years being the normal to produce trees 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter (12).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Genetics
Within the climatically and topographically diverse and disjunct distribution of European black pine, recognizable differences in the population have evolved through natural selection. As early as the third century B.C., Theophrastis (370-285 B.C.) recognized several striking variations within what is here called Pinus nigra.
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
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Molecular Biology
Barcode data: Pinus nigra
The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.
No available public DNA sequences.
Download FASTA File
No available public DNA sequences.
Download FASTA File
© Barcode of Life Data Systems
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Statistics of barcoding coverage: Pinus nigra
Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 7
Specimens with Barcodes: 9
Species With Barcodes: 1
Public Records: 7
Specimens with Barcodes: 9
Species With Barcodes: 1
© Barcode of Life Data Systems
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
LR/lc
Lower Risk/least concern
Red List Criteria
Version
2.3
Year Assessed
1998
- Needs updating
Assessor/s
Conifer Specialist Group
Reviewer/s
© International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Source:
IUCN
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable
© NatureServe
Source:
NatureServe
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: GNR - Not Yet Ranked
Reasons: Native of central and southern Europe and Asia Minor. Now widely planted throughout North America (Elias, 1980).
© NatureServe
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NatureServe
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Management
Management considerations
Most of the European black pine planted in the United States is from
Austrian sources [21].
European black pine seedlings up to about 2 months of age are subject to
predation by voles and rabbits; older seedlings apparently become
unpalatable [21].
Insects and diseases: European black pine seedlings are damaged by
damping off fungi and seedling root rots. Mature trees are easily
infected by Dithostroma needle blight, the most damaging foliage disease
of European black pine. Other diseases include Lophodermium needle
cast, which is damaging to European black pine in the Great Lakes States
[21]. European black pine is also moderately to highly susceptible to
infection by brown spot needle disease [18]. The dagger nematode
damages seedlings. Insect damage to European black pine is generally of
less importance than damage by fungal pathogens [21].
Austrian sources [21].
European black pine seedlings up to about 2 months of age are subject to
predation by voles and rabbits; older seedlings apparently become
unpalatable [21].
Insects and diseases: European black pine seedlings are damaged by
damping off fungi and seedling root rots. Mature trees are easily
infected by Dithostroma needle blight, the most damaging foliage disease
of European black pine. Other diseases include Lophodermium needle
cast, which is damaging to European black pine in the Great Lakes States
[21]. European black pine is also moderately to highly susceptible to
infection by brown spot needle disease [18]. The dagger nematode
damages seedlings. Insect damage to European black pine is generally of
less importance than damage by fungal pathogens [21].
- 18. Skilling, Darroll D.; Nicholls, Thomas H. 1974. Brown spot needle disease-biology and control in Scotch pine plantations. Research Paper NC-109. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 19 p. [10512]
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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These species are introduced in Switzerland.
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Aeschimann, D. & C. Heitz. 2005. Synonymie-Index der Schweizer Flora und der angrenzenden Gebiete (SISF). 2te Auflage. Documenta Floristicae Helvetiae N° 2. Genève.
http://www.crsf.ch/
© Info Flora (CRSF/ZDSF) & Autoren 2005
Supplier: Name It's Source (profile not public)
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Other uses and values
More info for the terms: resistance, tree
In the United States European black pine is mainly planted for
shelterbelts, as a street tree, and as an ornamental [21,22]. It is
recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to
deep moist or upland soils [16]. Its value as a street tree is largely
due to its resistance to salt spray (used in road de-icing) and various
industrial pollutants, and its intermediate drought tolerance [21]. It
is resistant to snow and ice damage. In Missouri European black pines
were undamaged by a sleet storm that caused widespread and extensive
damage to many other street trees [4].
One- to three-year-old European black pine seedlings were found to have
no symptoms of ozone damage after exposure to 0.020 ppm of ozone for
5-hour periods (treatment repeated over one growing season) [5].
In the United States European black pine is mainly planted for
shelterbelts, as a street tree, and as an ornamental [21,22]. It is
recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to
deep moist or upland soils [16]. Its value as a street tree is largely
due to its resistance to salt spray (used in road de-icing) and various
industrial pollutants, and its intermediate drought tolerance [21]. It
is resistant to snow and ice damage. In Missouri European black pines
were undamaged by a sleet storm that caused widespread and extensive
damage to many other street trees [4].
One- to three-year-old European black pine seedlings were found to have
no symptoms of ozone damage after exposure to 0.020 ppm of ozone for
5-hour periods (treatment repeated over one growing season) [5].
- 4. Croxton, W. C. 1939. A study of the tolerance of trees to breakage by ice accumulation. Ecology. 20: 71-73. [5993]
- 5. Davis, D. D.; Umbach, D. M.; Coppolino, J. B. 1981. Susceptibility of tree and shrub species and response of black cherry foliage to ozone. Plant Disease. 65(11): 904-907. [12517]
- 16. Read, Ralph A. 1964. Tree windbreaks for the Central Great Plains. Agric. Handb. 250. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [2897]
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
- 22. Vogel, Willis G. 1981. A guide for revegetating coal minespoils in the eastern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-68. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 190 p. [15577]
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Palatability
White-tailed deer showed intermediate preference for European black pine
as compared to other ornamental species (including yews [Taxus spp.],
other conifers, and various hardwoods) [2].
as compared to other ornamental species (including yews [Taxus spp.],
other conifers, and various hardwoods) [2].
- 2. Conover, M. R.; Kania, G. S. 1988. Browsing preference of white-tailed deer for different ornamental species. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 16: 175-179. [8933]
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Importance to Livestock and Wildlife
More info for the term: tree
In Wyoming mule deer that were forced onto a conifer tree nursery by
bad weather browsed European black pine in preference to ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa), blue spruce (Picea pungens), bristlecone pine (Pinus
aristata), and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum). Damage
was concentrated on the lateral branch buds and needles [9].
In Wyoming mule deer that were forced onto a conifer tree nursery by
bad weather browsed European black pine in preference to ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa), blue spruce (Picea pungens), bristlecone pine (Pinus
aristata), and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum). Damage
was concentrated on the lateral branch buds and needles [9].
- 9. Hammer, Dennie A. 1989. Deer damage to an Austrian pine tree nursery in Wheatland, Wyoming. In: Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Uresk, Daniel W.; Hamre, R. H., technical coordinators. Proceedings, 9th Great Plains wildlife damage control workshop; 1989 April 17-20; Fort Collins, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-171. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 105-108. [9815]
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Wood Products Value
More info for the term: fuel
The wood of European black pine is similar to that of Scotch pine and
red pine (Pinus resinosa), which is moderately hard and
straight-grained. European black pine wood, however, is rougher, softer,
and not as strong [21].
In the Mediterranean region European black pine wood is used for general
construction, fuel, and in other purposes [21].
In the United States European black pine is of little importance as a
timber species. It is planted mainly for shelterbelts [21].
The wood of European black pine is similar to that of Scotch pine and
red pine (Pinus resinosa), which is moderately hard and
straight-grained. European black pine wood, however, is rougher, softer,
and not as strong [21].
In the Mediterranean region European black pine wood is used for general
construction, fuel, and in other purposes [21].
In the United States European black pine is of little importance as a
timber species. It is planted mainly for shelterbelts [21].
- 21. Van Haverbeke, David F. 1990. Pinus nigra Arnold European black pine. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 395-404. [13178]
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Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites
European black pine is recommended for planting on strip-mined lands in
Pennsylvania [10]. It has probably not been widely used for
surface-mine plantings. European black pine is similar to red pine in
climatic adaptation and growth performance on acid minesoils. It is
recommended for use in Ohio on fine-clay, poorly drained minesoils with
a pH of 5 to 7, although suitable native pines are preferred [22]. In
Idaho it was reported as having good potential for revegetating sites
denuded by heavy metal pollution from smelter emissions [1].
Pennsylvania [10]. It has probably not been widely used for
surface-mine plantings. European black pine is similar to red pine in
climatic adaptation and growth performance on acid minesoils. It is
recommended for use in Ohio on fine-clay, poorly drained minesoils with
a pH of 5 to 7, although suitable native pines are preferred [22]. In
Idaho it was reported as having good potential for revegetating sites
denuded by heavy metal pollution from smelter emissions [1].
- 1. Carter, Daniel B.; Loewenstein, Howard. 1978. Factors affecting the revegetation of smelter-contaminated soils. Reclamation Review. 1(3/4): 113-119. [22577]
- 10. Hughes, H. Glenn. 1990. Ecological restoration: fact or fantasy on strip-mined lands in western Pennsylvania?. In: Hughes, H. Glenn; Bonnicksen, Thomas M., eds. Restoration '89: the new management challenge: Proceedings, 1st annual meeting of the Society for Ecological Restoration; 1989 January 16-20; Oakland, CA. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Society for Ecological Restoration: 237-243. [14699]
- 22. Vogel, Willis G. 1981. A guide for revegetating coal minespoils in the eastern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-68. Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 190 p. [15577]
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Special Uses
European black pine is a widespread and important timber-producing tree of central and southern Europe, especially Corsica. The wood resembles Scotch pine but is rougher, softer in texture, and possesses less strength. Although the wood has a relatively larger proportion of sapwood to heartwood and thus requires a long rotation, it is used extensively throughout the Mediterranean region for general construction, fuelwood, and other purposes for which pine timber is needed (12).
Elsewhere, black pine has been grown more for estate and landscape uses than as a timber crop, although in England during World War II it proved serviceable for box boards and pit props.
The species has been planted extensively in cold, semi-arid, exposed coastal regions for protection and sand dune fixation because of its capacity to withstand drought, to grow on light, dry sandy soils of low productivity, and to tolerate fill (6). This frost-hardy, windfirm, and light-demanding species has been widely used for nearly 100 years in windbreaks and roadside plantings throughout the eastern Great Plains of the United States, where its dense foliage and stiff branches withstand wind, ice, and heavy snow.
The species has not been widely grown in the United States for timber production, although estate, school, and experimental plantings have been thinned for pulpwood and timber products (69). It is occasionally tapped for resin, but its pitch is not as high in quality as that of slash pine (Pinus elliottii).
European black pine is grown for Christmas trees in the North Central and Northeastern States (34) where it is not subject to heavy damage from the European shoot moth and tip moth, but where it is severely damaged by Dothistroma, Lophodermium, and Diplodia needle and tip blights.
It is being increasingly used in urban and industrial environmental improvement plantings because of its rapid growth and protoplasmic insensitivity to salt spray (4) and to industrial dust, dry soil, and smoke containing sulfur dioxide (7). Excised shoots of black pine and other conifer species are capable of absorbing more S02, N02, and 03 than shoots of a number of deciduous species (18). It also provides wildlife habitat and might be used as a wood source (39).
Elsewhere, black pine has been grown more for estate and landscape uses than as a timber crop, although in England during World War II it proved serviceable for box boards and pit props.
The species has been planted extensively in cold, semi-arid, exposed coastal regions for protection and sand dune fixation because of its capacity to withstand drought, to grow on light, dry sandy soils of low productivity, and to tolerate fill (6). This frost-hardy, windfirm, and light-demanding species has been widely used for nearly 100 years in windbreaks and roadside plantings throughout the eastern Great Plains of the United States, where its dense foliage and stiff branches withstand wind, ice, and heavy snow.
The species has not been widely grown in the United States for timber production, although estate, school, and experimental plantings have been thinned for pulpwood and timber products (69). It is occasionally tapped for resin, but its pitch is not as high in quality as that of slash pine (Pinus elliottii).
European black pine is grown for Christmas trees in the North Central and Northeastern States (34) where it is not subject to heavy damage from the European shoot moth and tip moth, but where it is severely damaged by Dothistroma, Lophodermium, and Diplodia needle and tip blights.
It is being increasingly used in urban and industrial environmental improvement plantings because of its rapid growth and protoplasmic insensitivity to salt spray (4) and to industrial dust, dry soil, and smoke containing sulfur dioxide (7). Excised shoots of black pine and other conifer species are capable of absorbing more S02, N02, and 03 than shoots of a number of deciduous species (18). It also provides wildlife habitat and might be used as a wood source (39).
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Burns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, technical coordinators. 1990. Silvics of North America: 1. Conifers; 2. Hardwoods. Agriculture Handbook 654 (Supersedes Agriculture Handbook 271,Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, 1965). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. vol.2, 877 pp.
http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/table_of_contents.htm
David F. Van Haverbeke
Source:
Silvics of North America
Trusted
Wikipedia
Pinus nigra
Pinus nigra, the European black pine, is a moderately variable species of pine, occurring across southern Mediterranean Europe from Spain to the Crimea, in Asia Minor and on Corsica/Cyprus, and in the high mountains of the Maghreb in North Africa.
Contents |
Distribution
Pinus nigra is a tree of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. The majority of the range is in Turkey. It is found in the higher elevations of the South Apennine mixed montane forests ecoregion in southern Italy and the Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests ecoregion in Sicily. There are remnant populations in the Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests ecoregion, and in the higher Atlas Mountains in Morocco and Algeria.
It is found at elevations ranging from sea level to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), most commonly from 250–1,600 metres (820–5,200 ft). Several of the varieties have distinct English names.[2]
Description
Pinus nigra is a large coniferous evergreen tree, growing to 20–55 metres (66–180 ft) tall at maturity. The bark is grey to yellow-brown, and is widely split by flaking fissures into scaly plates, becoming increasingly fissured with age. The leaves ("needles") are thinner and more flexible in western populations (see 'Taxonomy' section below).
The ovulate and pollen cones appear from May to June. The mature seed cones are 5–10 cm (rarely to 11 cm) long, with rounded scales; they ripen from green to pale grey-buff or yellow-buff in September to November, about 18 months after pollination. The seeds are dark grey, 6–8 mm long, with a yellow-buff wing 20–25 mm long; they are wind-dispersed when the cones open from December to April. Sexual maturity is reached at 15–40 years; large seed crops are produced at 2–5 year intervals.
P. nigra is moderately fast growing, at about 30–70 centimetres (12–28 in) per year. It usually has a rounded conic form, that becomes irregular with age. The tree can be long lived, with some trees over 500 years old. It needs full sun to grow well, is intolerant of shade, and is resistant to snow and ice damage.
Taxonomy
The species is divided into two subspecies, each further subdivided into three varieties.[3][4] Some authorities (e.g. Flora Europaea) treat several of the varieties at subspecific rank, but this reflects tradition rather than sound taxonomy, as the distinctions between the taxa are small.[5]
- Subspecies
- P. nigra subsp. nigra in the east of the range, from Austria, northeast and central Italy, east to the Crimea and Turkey. Needles stout, rigid, 1.5–2 mm diameter, with 3–6 layers of thick-walled hypodermal cells.
- P. nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra (syn. Pinus nigra var. austriaca, Pinus nigra subsp. dalmatica) (Austrian Pine): Austria, Balkans (except southern Greece).
- P. nigra subsp. nigra var. caramanica (Turkish black pine): Turkey, Cyprus, southern Greece.
- P. nigra subsp. nigra var. pallasiana (syn. Pinus nigra subsp. pallasiana) (Crimean pine): Crimea.
- P. nigra subsp. salzmannii in the west of the range, from southern Italy to southern France, Spain and North Africa. Needles slender, more flexible, 0.8–1.5 mm diameter, with 1–2 layers of thin-walled hypodermal cells.
- P. nigra subsp. salzmannii var. salzmannii (Pyreneean pine): Pyrenees, Southern France, Northern Spain.
- P. nigra subsp. salzmannii var. corsicana (syn. Pinus nigra subsp. laricio, Pinus nigra var. maritima) (Corsican Pine): Corsica, Sicily, Southern Italy.
- P. nigra subsp. salzmannii var. mauretanica (Atlas Mountains black pine): Morocco, Algeria.
Ecology
In Mediterranean Europe and Asia Minor to Western Asia trees usually associated with this species include Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris), Serbian Spruce (Picea omorika), Bosnian Pine (Pinus heldreichii), Norway Spruce (Picea abies), Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus libani), European Silver Fir (Abies alba) and related firs. Several species of juniper (Juniperus spp.), and various broadleaf trees are associates.
- Climate and provenance
The eastern P. nigra subsp. nigra exhibits greater winter frost hardiness (hardy to below −30°C) than the western P. nigra subsp. salzmannii (hardy to about −25°C).[3]
Different provenances (seed sources by geographic area) or varieties are adapted to different soil types: Austrian and Pyrenees origins grow well on a wide range of soil types, Corsican origins grows poorly on limestone, while Turkish and Crimean origins grow well on limestone. Most provenances also show good growth on podzolic soils.
Cultivation
Lumber
The timber of European Black Pine is similar to that of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and Red Pine (Pinus resinosa), being moderately hard and straight-grained. It does however tend to be rougher, softer, and not as strong, due to its faster growth. It is used for general construction, fuel, and in paper manufacture.
In the United Kingdom, Pinus nigra is important both as a timber tree and in plantations (primarily Corsican Pine subsp.). Recently however, serious problems have occurred with red band needle blight disease, caused by the fungus Dothistroma septosporum, resulting in a major recent decline in forestry planting there. [6] In the United States it is of low importance as a timber species.
In regard to Austrian Pine, the fungus Dothistroma septosporum is wide spread and rapidly spreading out of control throughout the United States. All now growing Austrian pine are expected to be killed by this disease. It is out of control and not recommended for landscaping, especially in groups or rows.
Ornamental usage
In the United States, European Black Pine is planted as a street tree, and as an ornamental tree in gardens and parks. Its value as a street tree is largely due to its resistance to salt spray (from road de-icing salt) and various industrial pollutants (including ozone), and its intermediate drought tolerance. In the United Kingdom the tree is planted as an ornamental tree in parks and gardens. The cultivar P. nigra subsp. laricia (Corsican pine) has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[7]
In both the USA and UK most of the specimens planted are from Austrian sources, the Pinus nigra subsp. nigra and Pinus nigra subsp. nigra var. nigra seed selections. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when demand for natural trees was extremely high, its rapid growth, deep green color and low cost made it briefly a popular Christmas tree, but the extreme length of the needles (making it very difficult to decorate) soon led to its fall from favor, and it has long since been abandoned in the USA for that purpose.
P. nigra is planted for windbreaks and shelterbelts in the USA, recommended for windbreaks in the Northern Great Plains on medium to deep moist or upland soils.
Invasive species
Pinus nigra has become naturalised in a few areas of the United States. In New Zealand it is considered an invasive species and noxious weed, along with Lodgepole Pine—Pinus contorta and Scots Pine—Pinus sylvestris, due to their habitat conversion nature in tussock grassland plant communities, shading out the native bunch grasses as their forest canopy develops.
See also
References
- ^ Conifer Specialist Group (1998). Pinus nigra. 2006. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. www.iucnredlist.org. Retrieved on 12 May 2006.
- ^ Rushforth, K. (1987). Conifers. Helm ISBN 0-7470-2801-X.
- ^ a b Gymnosperm Database: Pinus nigra
- ^ Christensen, K. I. (1993). Comments on the earliest validly published varietal name for the Corsican Pine. Taxon 42: 649-653.
- ^ Farjon, A. (2005). Pines Drawings and Descriptions of the Genus Pinus 2nd ed. Brill ISBN 90-04-13916-8.
- ^ Forestry Commission: Red band needle blight
- ^ http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=1479
Source:
Wikipedia
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