An invertebrate-feeding specialist, the panther chameleon moves slowly and stealthily through vegetation, its fused, opposing digits providing a pincer-like grip, while its independently-moving eyes scan the surroundings. Once prey has been sighted it is caught by means of the panther chameleon's remarkable, extensile tongue. The contraction of special muscles within the tongue rapidly propels it towards the prey, which is snared by a combination of the tongue's sticky mucous coating and a vacuum created by muscles in the tip (5). While most panther chameleons breed during the spring and summer (October to March), populations found in more climatically stable regions along the west coast may breed all year round. The mature male panther chameleon establishes a territory, which is defended from other males, and offers a site where courtship can take place. When a female is encountered exhibiting receptive colouration, the male commences courtship behaviour, which includes an increase in colour intensity and nodding of the head. Over a period of minutes to days after mating, the female acquires the striking, non-receptive colouration, and will make threat displays consisting of opening the mouth wide and rocking, to any courting males that approach (3). At the end of the two to three week gestation period, the female digs a burrow (3) into which a clutch of 16 to 24 eggs is laid and covered over with soil (2). The eggs take between six and twelve months to hatch, and the newborns then clamber to the surface. Sexual maturity is reached after around five months (3), and the maximum lifespan in the wild is two years (2).

Exhibiting some of the most spectacular colour variations of all chameleons, the large-bodied panther chameleon is highly sought after by reptile keepers (2) (3). Interestingly, populations from different locations within this species' range each have a particular colouration and patterning, which is generally most pronounced during courtship or defensive displays. Male panther chameleons from the Madagascan island of Nosy Be, for example, have uniform striking blue-green, emerald-green or turquoise bodies, whereas males from the north-west coast are vivid pink, with a yellowish white stripe along the flanks, a colour form known as “the pink panther.” Other colours found in the males may include orange, red and dark green, with a hugely variable patterning of coloured bands, stripes and spots, especially around the head and eyes. By contrast, females are mostly dull, uniform grey, brown or faint green, except during breeding, when receptive females become pale or vivid orange to pink, later changing to black, with bright orange or pink vertical bars when gravid. Like many other chameleon species, the panther chameleon's head extends at the rear into a raised bony prominence known as a “casque” (3).

The Panther Chameleon is endemic to Madagascar where it is widespread in lowland areas of the northeast and east. Raselimanana and Rakotomala (2003) give the elevation range for this species from 80 m to 950 m above sea-level, although it certainly occurs at lower elevations (Rabearivony et al. 2008) and may be less common above 700 m (Raxworthy 1988, Raselimanana et al. 2000, Andreone et al. 2005). The chameleon's extent of occurrence within its native range is estimated to be 91,090 km²^{; populations have also been introduced to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius (N. Cole pers. comm. July 2011).}

Furcifer pardalis, also known as panther chameleons, are native to the island of Madagascar. They are distributed throughout the island but are locally abundant on the central-eastern, north-eastern, northern and north-western coasts. Furcifer pardalis have also been introduced to areas such as La Réunion and Mauritius.

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Introduced , Native )

Continent: Indian-Ocean
Distribution: Nossi Be = Nosy Bé, St. Marie, Nosy Faly, Nosy Mangabe, Nosy Mitsio, Nosy Sakatia, Nosy Tanikely, NE Madagascar, Reunion (introduced)  
Type locality: Ile de France, in error.

Endemic to Madagascar, the panther chameleon is found in coastal regions and islands of central-eastern, north-eastern, northern and north-western Madagascar (2) (3). Introduced populations are also found on the islands of Reunion and Mauritius around 500 kilometres east of Madagascar (3) (4).

The most fascinating feature of Furcifer pardalis is their extraordinarily vibrant coloration. Adult chameleons are sexually dimorphic and males can be recognized by their larger size, swollen basis of the tail indicating the presence of the hemipenes, and have a wide range of coloration and patterns. Females are identified as being more uniformly pale green or pink, smaller in size, with a thinner tail base, and sometimes with eggs detectable through the body walls. Adults can reach a length of 23 cm. It is much more difficult to distinguish the sex of juvenile chameleons less than 6 months of age because of their smaller size, dull coloration, and lack of hemipenial bulge in males.

Coloration and patterning of Furcifer pardalis varies significantly depending on their origin of location. Typically, panther chameleons from the Madagascan Island Nosy Be are blue-green, emerald-green or have turquoise bodies. Males from the northwest coast are usually bright pink, with a yellowish white stripe along the sides; this is commonly referred to as "the pink panthers". Males can also be orange, red and dark green with a vast variation in spots, stripes, and/or bands around the head and eyes.

Panther chameleons lack a vomeronasal organ, an auxiliary olfactory sense organ that is found in many animals. They also do not have an outer or a middle ear, which suggests that chameleons might be deaf. Chameleons do have specialized feet with a tong-like appearance called zygodactyl. On each foot the five toes are fused into a group of two digits and a group of three digits. On the front feet the bundle of three toes is on the inside of the foot, and the bundle of two toes is on the outside. This is reversed on the rear foot, giving them a secure and strong grasp and allowing them to maneuver horizontally or vertically on a wide variety of vegetation or structures. These specialized feet allow chameleons to hold on tightly to narrow branches. Sharp claws on each toe help them climb and grip surfaces that they cannot grasp tightly, such as tree trunks.

Range length: 23 (high) cm.

Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Furcifer pardalis mainly inhabits lowland, dry deciduous forests close to thin belts of trees bordering rivers and roads. This particular species seems to prefer open habitats that are not overly shaded. Scientists believe this is due to the need to colonize open spaces where they may bask and males may use visual signals directed to females (during courtship) or for males to establish territories. Male panther chameleons also have a higher range of elevation than females, most likely for territorial reasons.

Range elevation: 1.0 to 7.02 m.

Average elevation: 1.8 m.

Habitat Regions: tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: rainforest ; scrub forest

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

Other Habitat Features: riparian

The panther chameleon mainly inhabits lowland, dry deciduous forest, apparently favouring thin belts of trees bordering rivers and roads (2).

Furcifer pardalis are considered opportunistic hunters because they wait for prey to pass within range of their long tongues. They feed mostly on terrestrial invertebrates and very rarely, plant material. They have the ability to rotate and focus their eyes separately to observe two different objects simultaneously. This allows them a full 360-degree arc of vision around their body while staying completely still and camouflaged. When prey is located in sight, both eyes can be focused in the same direction, giving sharp stereoscopic vision and depth perception.

Chameleons have very unique tongues specialized for capturing their prey. An extensive study done in 2000 revealed the complexities of how the chameleon tongue works. The capture of prey was often attributed only to adhesion to the tongue pad but now scientists believe the speed and form of the tongue also creates a suction device. The hyoid bone is a piece of cartilage that extends into the mouth from the throat bones (called the hyolingual apparatus) and is attached to a chameleon's long tongue. This is where the tongue rests when it is not in use. The tongue is launched from the hyoid bone with the use of ringed muscles in the tongue. This highly complex structure is composed of cartilage, muscles, nerves, glands, and tissues that all work together to create an incredibly fast and effective tongue for seizing their food.

Animal Foods: insects

Plant Foods: flowers

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

Furcifer pardalis do not have any significant impacts on the ecosystem. They do prey on many insects and other invertebrates and thus likely impact those local populations. They also support the populations of predators that prey on them.

No specific data is available on predation of F. pardalis. The main predators of chameleons are typically birds and snakes. The ability to camouflage their skin color to match the surrounding environment is their best defense against visual-detecting predators. They are slow-moving creatures that often freeze and remain unmoving for long periods of time which may also aid in going unnoticed by predators.

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

During the breeding season, male Furcifer pardalis will increase the intensity of coloration to attract potential mates. Males will also become more vibrant in color during physical battles with competing chameleons. The loser often surrenders by turning drab or dark colors and retreats. Male and female panther chameleons communicate through physical gestures and visual signals. Both sexes will exhibit specific breeding coloration to indicate readiness to mate. Males will perform a courtship display consisting of head bobbing and increased intensity of skin coloration.

Females communicate their mating status through body coloration. When a female is encountered exhibiting receptive coloration, the male begins courtship behavior, which includes an increase in color intensity and nodding of the head. Over a period of minutes to days after mating, the female is gravid (egg bearing) and displays a non-receptive coloration. The female's stomach turns dark brown or black with orange striping to signify to the other males she has already successfully mated. The exact coloration and pattern of gravid females varies depending on the color phase of the chameleon. This provides a useful way to distinguish between locales. While gravid, females will also make threats to courting males that may approach; these threats consist of opening the mouth wide and rocking back and forth.

Chameleons are primarily visual hunters and utilize a unique visual perception system. Their dome-shaped eyes are located on either side of their heads, and are capable of independent movement. When one eye detects a prey object, the head turns to allow both eyes to focus. Their eyes lack the structures necessary for nocturnal vision, thus they are diurnal hunters.

Communication Channels: visual

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic

Female Furcifer pardalis gestate fertilized eggs for 2 to 3 weeks. It typically takes the young anywhere from 6 months to a year to hatch from their eggs. From that point the young take another 6 months until they are sexually mature and have developed adult coloration and size.

While males can exceed five years of age in captivity, most wild panther chameleons survive only one or two years after maturity. Females on average have a shorter lifespan in the wild and in captivity due to the stresses of reproduction and oviposition.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 1 to 3 years.

Average lifespan

Status: captivity: 5 years.

Maximum longevity: 5.2 years (captivity)

Courtship often begins with displays by males. This usually includes the display of bright colors and a series of jerking or bobbing head movements while advancing on a female. Some males advance slowly with a halting or jerky gait, but others move very rapidly and can be aggressive toward females. Females that are unreceptive or gravid may flee or may face the pursuing male with a gaping mouth while hissing, rearing up on the hind legs, and rocking to discourage the male's advances. If the female seems interested, the male will mount the female by grasping her flanks and position himself on the right or left side of her body. Copulation takes place when the male everts the nearest of his two hemipenes and inserts it in the female's cloaca. Some species copulate for a few minutes and others for as long as several hours, after which they typically go their separate ways.

Limited information exists on the mating systems of Furcifer pardalis but some researchers have observed mating behavior consistent with serial polygyny. Captive studies of Furcifer pardalis have shown males to have larger home ranges than females. Females will often stay within a small area and will be visited by roaming males during the breeding season. This species exhibits slight pair-bonding, consisting of males choosing to remain within the female's territory for a period post-breeding and likely defend this female from other males. Females that have already mated have exhibited aggressive behaviors to successive, roaming males. The successful male will stay with the female for a short period post-breeding and then continue roaming, likely in search of another mate.

Mating System: polygynous

In most locations, breeding occurs between January and May but this may vary geographically. Females of some areas are able to breed multiple times per year. After mating, the gestation period lasts 3 to 6 weeks. The females excavate burrows by digging with their front feet and then backing into them to deposit 10 to 46 eggs. When they are finished, they bury the eggs, fill in the tunnel, and stomp the soil down to conceal the location of the nest. Some females drag leaves and twigs over the site. This is the final act of motherhood for a chameleon, and her young will be independent at birth. The young emerge by slitting a star-shaped opening in the end of the eggshell with the egg tooth, a sharp, calcified protrusion on the tip of the upper jawbone that later falls off. The young weigh 0.25 to 0.75 g upon hatching. Juveniles reach reproductive maturity at 6 months old.

Breeding interval: Depending on the location, females will produce several egg clutches a year.

Breeding season: Breeding takes place between the months of January and May.

Range number of offspring: 10 to 46.

Range gestation period: 3 to 6 weeks.

Range birth mass: 0.25 to 0.75 g.

Average birth mass: 0.55 g.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 6 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 6 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; fertilization ; oviparous

Female and male Furcifer pardalis show no further parental investment beyond creating and depositing eggs. The mother will attempt to protect the buried eggs from predators by concealing the location of the nest with twigs and leaves but that is her final involvement and the young will be independent immediately upon hatching.

Female panther chameleons invest significant time and energy in ensuring her young will fully develop. Producing successful chameleon offspring depends heavily on adequate vitamin D amounts within the mother during gestation. Ultraviolet (UV) light from the sun is known to produce vitamin D in the skin of many vertebrates such as the panther chameleons. UV-induced vitamin D serves as a signal in the body to help adjust the calcium-phosphorus balance in the body. Its main function is to stimulate the uptake of calcium from the gut and reduce calcium re-absorption from bone. Eggs fail to hatch if the mother does not have adequate vitamin D from either UV exposure or dietary intake because she cannot supply enough vitamin D to their eggs to facilitate the developing embryos to form their skeletons. An important discovery made in the last few years was that females seem to be able to sense their internal vitamin D-condition, recognize an external UV source and voluntarily expose themselves to that source when they are vitamin D deficient. Alternatively, they choose to avoid high UV sources when they are vitamin D sufficient.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female)

Furcifer pardalis is one of the most sought after species of chameleon in the international pet trade due to the beautiful coloration and success of breeding in captivity. From 1977 to 2001 exported Furcifer pardalis chameleons accounted for almost eight percent of total exports of chameleon species to the United States. Stricter trade quotas have been enforced and the recent export levels are within a sustainable range. Currently there is little risk to this chameleon species besides the threat of ongoing habitat loss and modification.

CITES: appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: no special status

Listed on Appendix II of CITES (1).

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Extremely popular in the pet trade, exported panther chameleons accounted for almost eight percent of total exports of chameleon species to the US from 1977 to 2001 (4). Prior to the imposing of stricter trade quotas, 15,000 panther chameleons per year were being taken from the wild (2), a level of exploitation which was a significant cause for concern given this species' restricted range (2) (4). Fortunately, however, current export levels are much lower, and with relatively abundant wild populations, there is little risk to this species at present (1) (2).

Conservation Actions

The panther chameleon is listed on Appendix II of the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and any international trade in this species is therefore strictly controlled and regulated by annual maximum export quotas (1). Although exports in this species have previously been alarmingly high, since 1999, the maximum export quota has been set at 2,000 individuals per year, which appears to be sustainable (1) (2). Aside from trade, a major threat to all Madagascan wildlife is the ongoing habitat loss and degradation occurring throughout Madagascar (6). While the panther chameleon seems to be relatively resistant to this problem, it would nevertheless benefit from management measures that ensure the preservation of tracts of forest alongside roads and rivers (2).

There are no known adverse effects of Furcifer pardalis on humans.

There are relatively few uses for Furcifer pardalis by local people within their range of distribution. Chameleons are not used very often in local cuisine. Furcifer pardalis is however captured and sold within the international live pet trade. The United States, Europe, and Asia are the major participants within this trafficking.

Positive Impacts: pet trade