Table of Contents
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Overview
Brief Summary
Biology
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Comprehensive Description
Description
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Distribution
Geographic Range
Exclusively North American, box turtles are found in the eastern United States, ranging from southern Maine to Florida along the East Coast, and west to Michigan, Illinois, eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Due to its popularity as a household pet, Terrapene carolina is sometimes found far outside its normal geographic range.
There are four subspecies of Terrapene carolina in the Terrapene carolina bauri (Florida box turtle) lives on the peninsula of Florida. Terrapene c. major (Gulf Coast box turtle) ranges from the panhandle of Florida westward along the Gulf Coast to eastern Texas. Terrapene c. triunguis (3 toed box turtle) lives in the Mississippi River Valley from northern Missouri southward across southeastern Kansas and eastern Oklahoma into south-central Texas; and southeastward across western Tennessee and Georgia to the coastal lowlands. Terrapene c. carolina (common box turtle), covering the largest area, lives from Michigan and Maine on the north, and ranges south to the boundaries of the other subspecies. Very little overlap occurs between the ranges of the subspecies of Terrapene carolina, except for a region in Mississippi and Alabama where T. c. triunguis and T. c. carolina overlap.
Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )
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National Distribution
Canada
Origin: Exotic
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
United States
Origin: Native
Regularity: Regularly occurring
Currently: Present
Confidence: Confident
Type of Residency: Year-round
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Global Range: (200,000 to >2,500,000 square km (about 80,000 to >1,000,000 square miles)) Range extends from southern New England to Michigan, southern Iowa, and eastern Kansas, and south to eastern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and southern Florida; also Campeche, Quintana Roo, Yucatan, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz, Mexico (Ernst and McBreen 1991).
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Distribution: USA (S Maine ?, S New Hampshire ?, SE New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Missouri, Arkansas, S Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, E Kansas, E Oklahoma, C/E Texas) Mexico (Campeche, Quintana Roo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatan) Has been introduced to the Mariana Islands (Guam) in the Pacific Ocean (LEVER 2003): 21). bauri: Florida;
Type locality: “Florida;” restricted to “Orlando, Florida” [Orange County] by Schmidt (1953:94). carolina: Canada (Ontario?), Mexico (Campeche, Quintana Roo, San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatán), USA (Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michi- gan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennes- see, Texas, Virginia, West Virginia) mexicana: Mexico (San Luis Potosi, Tamaulipas, Veracruz) major: USA (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas) triunguis: USA (Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas);
Type locality: “Louisiana and Mississippi . . . New Orleans . . . Osage River . . . and from Georgia.” Restricted to “New Orleans, Louisiana,” by Schmidt (1953:94). yucatana: Mexico (Yucatan peninsula: Campeche, Quintana Roo, Yucatán).
Type locality: “Carolina”
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Range
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Physical Description
Morphology
Physical Description
All Terrapene carolina have a bridgeless, bilobed, hinged plastron (ventral part of shell) that allows box turtles to close their shells almost completely. They have a steep margined, keeled, high-domed, rounded carapace (dorsal part of shell) with variable markings. Concentric growth furrows can be seen on the carapace, although in some older individuals they become very difficult to see. The upper jaw is slightly hooked. The toes are only slightly webbed.
Males are slightly larger on average, the posterior lobe of their plastron is concave, and the claws on their hind legs are short, thick, and curved. Males also have thicker and longer tails. Females' rear claws are longer, straighter, and more slender, and the posterior lobe of their plastron is flat or slightly convex.
There is some variation between the different subspecies of box turtles. Terrapene c. bauri is roughly 11cm x 8cm in size with bright yellow markings on their dark brown carapace in the shape of lines. The plastron also has lines, as does the head. They have three toes on their hind feet.
Terrapene c. carolina is about 15 cm x 10 cm in size with highly variable orange or yellow markings on their brown carapace. They have four toes on their hind feet.
Terrapene c. triunguis is about the same length as T. c. carolina, or a little longer, but with a more narrow shell. They have a tan or olive carapace with darker seams and some vague markings. Their plastron is a lighter yellowish color. They have orange, red, or yellow spots on their head and forelimbs, and males heads are completely red.
Terrapene c. major is the largest at about 18 cm x 12 cm in size. They have a dark brown shell that often has no pattern, or a faint pattern similar to that of bauri. They have dark skin and plastron as well as four toes on the hind feet.
Along the borders of the subspecies ranges, there exist populations that are extremely varied due to hybridization between subspecies. Many of these individuals are so varied that identification as a member of a subspecies is impossible.
Range length: 11 to 18 cm.
Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: male larger
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Size
Type Information
Collection: Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology, Division of Amphibians & Reptiles
Sex/Stage: Female;
Preparation: Ethanol
Year Collected: 1898
Locality: Chijol (= El Chijol), Veracruz, Mexico
- Holotype: Stejneger, L. 1933. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. 46: 119.
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Ecology
Habitat
Habitat and Ecology
Terrapene carolina occurs in a variety of habitats, including open broadleaf forests, field-forest edges, shrubby graslands, marshy meadows, stream valleys, palmetto thickets and other vegetation types. The species is omnivorous, feeding on mushrooms, plant stems, leaves, flowers and fruits, slugs, snails, earthworms and numerous other types of food. Box turtles disperse and facilitate germination of certain plant seeds.
Males reach 23.5 cm carapace length (CL), females 19.8 cm in subspecies major, other subspecies rarely exceed 16 cm CL. Maturity is reached at five to six years / 9-10 cm CL in males, and at seven to eight years / 9-10 cm CL in females of subspecies baurii. Longevity of 50-80 years is probably not unusual, but most animals do not surpass 25-35 years at present. Generation time is probably at the order of 35 years years (Kiester pers. comm. 2009). Reproducing females produce one or two clutches of three to five (range 1-11) eggs per year, but many females do not reproduce each year. Incubation takes about 73 (50-110) days. Hatchlings measure about 30 (27-36) mm (Dodd 2001, Farrell et al. 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009).
Terrapene carolina mexicana lives mainly in tropical deciduous forest, rarely in mixed pine – deciduous forest or oak forest habitat at altitude (Dodd 2001, P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005). Most reported localities are below 500 m altitude (Smith and Smith 1979), but recoirds exist up to 900 m altitude in the Sierra de Tamaulipas (P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005). No specific information is available on food, feeding or reproduction (Dodd 2001).
Very little information available on the natural history of Terrapene carolina yucatana; preferred habitat apparently is low semi-xeric deciduous scrub forest broken by scattered grassland areas (Smith and Smith 1979); animals are occasionally encountered by rural farmers after slashing and burning of fallow fields before planting (Buskirk 1993). It is active only during the rainy season (June to early November) (Buskirk 1993). Largest recorded animal was 15.9 cm CL (Buskirk 1993), though Lee (1996) indicated up to 20 cm might be possible. Little or no information is available on food and feeding, reproduction, growth or maturity (Lee 1996, Dodd 2001).
Systems
- Terrestrial
- Freshwater
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Habitat
Terrapene carolina inhabits open woodlands, pastures, and marshy meadows. It is often found near streams and ponds.
Habitat Regions: temperate
Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest
Other Habitat Features: riparian
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Comments: Eastern box turtles inhabit forests, fields, forest-brush, and forest-field ecotones. In some areas they move seasonally from fields in spring to forest in summer. They commonly enters pools of shallow water in summer. For shelter, they burrow into loose soil, debris, mud, old stump holes, or under leaf litter. They can successfully hibernate in sites that may experience subfreezing temperatures. In Maryland bottomland forest, some hibernated in pits or depressions in forest floor (usually about 30 cm deep) usually within summer range; individuals tended to hibernate in same area in different years (Stickel 1989).
Egg laying sites often are sandy or loamy soils in open areas; females may move from bottomlands to warmer and drier sites to nest. In Maryland, females used the same nesting area in different years (Stickel 1989).
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Habitat
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Migration
Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).
Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.
In Maryland, females moved to nesting areas that were several hundred meters from the center of their bottomland non-nesting range (Stickel 1989).
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Trophic Strategy
Food Habits
Omnivorous, Terrapene carolina eats snails, insects, berries, fungi, slugs, worms, roots, flowers, fish, frogs, salamanders, snakes, birds, and eggs indiscriminately. They have been observed eating carrion, feeding on dead ducks, amphibians, assorted small mammals, and even a dead cow. Their preference varies greatly by season but there is one definite trend. Young are primarily carnivorous while they grow during their first 5-6 years. Adults tend to be mostly herbivorous, but they eat no green leaves. Young often hunt in ponds and streams because the type of food they prefer is easier to catch there, but adults usually feed on land. When confronted with several mealworms, a captive adult picked up each in turn and with a few bites killed or disabled it. Only when all were incapable of escape did the turtle start to feed. This behavior was observed on several occasions when more than one mealworm was offered (Ernst et al., 1994; Carr, 1952; Ernst and Barbour, 1972).
Animal Foods: birds; amphibians; reptiles; fish; eggs; carrion ; insects; mollusks; terrestrial worms
Plant Foods: fruit
Other Foods: fungus
Primary Diet: omnivore
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Comments: Young are primarily invertivorous (not noted in North Carolina; Stuart and Miller 1987); adults are opportunistic omnivores, eating various plants (including fruits), fungi, snails and other invertebrates, carrion, and rarely small vertebrates.
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Associations
Ecosystem Roles
This species eats a wide variety of animals, so may effect various prey populations. Also, box turtles may disperse seeds as they eat berries of different kinds of plants.
Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds
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Predation
While juveniles have several predators, very few species can prey effectively on adults due to their ability to close their shells.
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Population Biology
Number of Occurrences
Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.
Estimated Number of Occurrences: > 300
Comments: Total number of distinct occurrences is unknown but surely exceeds 300.
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Global Abundance
100,000 - 1,000,000 individuals
Comments: Total adult population size is unknown but surely exceeds 100,000.
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General Ecology
Population density in various parts of the range varies from a few per hectare up to a few dozen per hectare (see Stickel 1950, Dolbeer 1969, Schwartz et al. 1984, Williams and Parker 1987, Ernst et al. 1994, Langtimm et al. 1996, Pilgrim et al. 1997).
Home ranges overlap; nonterritorial. Home range diameter was estimated at about 100-230 m in several studies. Adult home range was 2 ha or less in Missouri, averaged slightly more than 1 ha in Maryland and did not change much over several years (Stickel 1989). Over 25 years, the home ranges of 22 individuals in Missouri ranged from 2.2 to 10.6 ha (Schwartz and Schwartz 1991).
Annual survivorship was 0.93-0.94 for adults in Maryland, 0.74-0.92 for adults in Missouri, and 0.93 for subadults and adults in Indiana (Williams and Parker 1987, Stickel 1978, Iverson 1991). Minimum natural longevity is 45-50 years (Williams and Parker 1987).
Fire may play a critical role in the ecology of Florida box turtle populations (Ernst et al. 1995, Herpetol. Rev. 26:185-187).
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Life History and Behavior
Cyclicity
Comments: Activity occurs during daylight hours in spring and fall, but in hot summer weather most activity is in the morning and after rains. Box turtles are generally inactive during cold winter weather. In Maryland, began hibernation mid- to late October, ended mid-March to early May (Stickel 1989). In central Florida, more individuals were found in the fall than in the spring (Pilgrim et al. 1997).
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Life Cycle
Development
Terrapene carolina exhibit temperature dependent sex determination. Nests that are 22-27 degrees C tend to be males, and those above 28 degrees tend to be female. Terrapene carolina are well developed at birth (precocial) and grow at a rate of about 1.5 cm per year during the first five years, at which time they reach sexual maturity. Growth slows down considerably after that but has been reported to continue for at least over 20 years. Some Terrapene carolina are believed to live over 100 years.
Development - Life Cycle: temperature sex determination; indeterminate growth
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Life Expectancy
Lifespan/Longevity
Terrapene carolina can live over 100 years.
Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 100 (high) years.
Typical lifespan
Status: captivity: 40 (high) years.
Range lifespan
Status: wild: 138 (high) years.
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Lifespan, longevity, and ageing
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Reproduction
Reproduction
The mating season begins in the spring and continues throughout summer to about October. Males may mate with more than one female, or the same female several times over a period of several years.
Mating System: polygynandrous (promiscuous)
A female may lay fertile eggs for up to four years after one successful mating. Nesting occurs from May through July. Most nests are started at twilight and finished during the night. Nests are usually dug in sandy or loamy soil, using the hind legs. Then eggs are laid in this cavity and the nest is carefully covered up again. There are 3-8 eggs laid, though usually 4 or 5, and they are elliptical with thin, white, flexible shells roughly 3cm long by 2cm wide. Incubation normally last three months, but this varies according to soil temperature and moisture. Terrapene carolina exhibit temperature dependent sex determination. Nests that are 22-27 degrees C tend to be males, and those above 28 degrees tend to be female.
Terrapene carolina are well developed at birth (precocial) and grow at a rate of about 1.5cm per year during the first five years, at which time they reach sexual maturity. Growth slows down considerably after that but has been reported to continue for at least over 20 years. Some Terrapene carolina are believed to live over 100 years.
Along the borders of the subspecies ranges, there exist populations that are extremely varied due to hybridization between subspecies. Many of these individuals are so varied that identification as a member of a subspecies is impossible.
There is some variation between the courtship rituals of the subspecies. The courtship of Terrapene carolina carolina is divided into three phases: a circling, biting, shoving phase; a preliminary mounting phase; and a copulatory phase. Terrapene carolina major shows courtship and mating that is basically the same as in T. c. carolina, but they sometimes mate in shallow water. Terrapene carolina triunguis and T. c. bauri both have somewhat different rituals, which may represent the ancestral method. Both T. c. triunguis and T. c. bauri males have added the behavior of pulsating their throats. Terrapene carolina triunguis does this in front of the female, and T. c bauri* males climb up on the females' carapace with all four feet and then pulsate. The actual copulation is the same in all subspecies, with the male standing somewhat upright, leaning the concave part of his plastron against the back of the female's carapace. It is in this balanced position during which the male fertilizes the female with his penis. Males sometimes fall backwards after copulation, and if they can't right themselves they die of starvation.
Range number of offspring: 3 to 8.
Average number of offspring: 4-5.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 5 (high) years.
Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 5 (high) years.
Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous
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Courtship and mating may occur at various times throughout the warmer months. The egg-laying period in most of the range extends from May through July (mainly June in Maryland, primarily June-July in Louisiana). Adult females lay one or more clutches of usually 1-8 eggs. In Louisiana, individual females generally laid 3-4 (maximum 6) clutches averaging 3-4 eggs per clutch, May-August; interclutch interval averaged 19 days; incubation period lasted 62-114 days (mean about 80-90 days) (Messinger and Patton 1995, Herpetol. Rev. 26:193-195). In Florida, modal clutch size was 2 and only a small percentage of the population produced multiple clutches; some individuals appeared to skip reproduction in some years (Dodd 1997). Eggs hatch in about 2-3 months, often in August, September, or October; hatchlings may overwinter in the nest. Age of sexual maturity has been variously reported as 4-5 or 5-10 years (Williams and Parker 1987). Nesting of individual females may extend over at least 32 years (Stickel 1989). In the wild, few box turtles live more than 40 years, but some may live a century or more.
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Molecular Biology and Genetics
Molecular Biology
Statistics of barcoding coverage: Terrapene carolina
Public Records: 0
Species: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1
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Conservation
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List Assessment
Red List Category
Red List Criteria
Version
Year Assessed
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Justification
Terrapene carolina mexicana was considered as Least Concern on the grounds that it has a relatively wide range, and although there are modest threats from habitat degradation and collection, the subspecies is currently not thought to be significantly impacted by these. However, these threats should be monitored.
Terrapene carolina yucatana was considered Vulnerable because it is documented as rare with a total population estimated to be less than 10,000, it has a fairly small area of occurrence, and no subpopulation is estimated to contain more than 1,000 individuals; there is an ongoing decline in the number of individuals, due to ongoing habitat degradation and loss, and incidental take. Maximum reproductive potential in other box turtle subspecies is around 7-11 eggs/female/year, and maturity at five to eight years; values for yucatana may be lower because of its shorter active season. In the absence of quantitative data, the subspecies qualifies at least for Vulnerable A2bc, A4bc, B2ab(iii) and/or C2a(i).History
- 1996Lower Risk/near threatened
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Conservation Status
Terrapene carolina are not considered endangered at the national level in the United States, Canada, or Mexico, although several U.S. states, including Michigan, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, list T. carolina as a species of special concern. It is considered endangered in Maine. There is evidence that some populations are in decline due to habitat loss, road mortality, and collection for the pet trade. They are listed as lower risk by the IUCN and they are in CITES appendix II.
US Federal List: no special status
CITES: appendix ii
State of Michigan List: special concern
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: lower risk - near threatened
- NatureServe. 2005. NatureServe Explorer. Accessed August 16, 2005 at http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/.
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National NatureServe Conservation Status
Canada
Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable
United States
Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure
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NatureServe Conservation Status
Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure
Reasons: Large range in eastern North America; locally abundant in many areas; declining in some areas as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation and overcollecting for the pet trade; secure because a large number of viable occurrences remain, but nevertheless of conservation concern in some areas.
Intrinsic Vulnerability: Highly to moderately vulnerable.
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Status
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Trends
Population
Terrapene carolina mexicana apparently is localized in its occurrence, and relatively common where it occurs (Smith and Smith 1979, P. Lavin pers. comm. 2005).
Terrapene carolina yucatana is uncommon to rare: rural farmers interviewed by Buskirk (1993) said that some might see a half dozen animals per year, and none in another year. Only 18 localities have been recorded over a century of the species being known to science (Smith and Smith 1979, Buskirk 1993). While the similarly uncommonly collected Kinosternon creaseri proved widespread and abundant when specifically searched for, Terrapene yucatana was not found by any turtle surveys in Yucatan (Iverson 1988; Buskirk 1993, 1997; Artner 2004). Total population was estimated as most likely less than 10,000 individuals (J.C. Lee pers. comm. 2005)
Population Trend
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Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable to decline of 30%
Comments: A population in Maryland declined greatly from 1945 to 1975; cause(s) of decline uncertain (Stickel 1978). In 1994, several states, including Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, reported declines (Lieberman 1994).
Global Long Term Trend: Decline of 30-50%
Comments: Thie species has declined in abundance, but the level of decline can only be estimated.
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Threats
Threats
Direct mortality from vehicle strikes, both as roadkill and from agricultural machinery, as well as fire mortality, reduces population density and recruitment potential. Decreased recruitment also results from increased predation, particularly of eggs and juveniles, by subsidized predators (i.e., unnaturally large populations of predators subsidized by easily available resources near human settlements) such as raccoons, foxes, possums, and crows, and possibly boar and dogs; introduced fire ants have also been implicated in Box Turtle population declines.
Intentional removal of large numbers of animals for the domestic and international pet trade has largely ceased, but incidental collection of animals as personal pets and for and 'turtle racing' continues, and amount to very large numbers over time. If returned to native habitat, released pet Box Turtles carry a risk of introducing disease into a native population, and animals from elsewhere represent the threat of genetic pollution. The role of disease in Box Turtle declines is not clear, but ear abscesses are particularly prevalent among Eastern Box Turtles and may indicate underlying stresses.
The overall impact of vegetational and forest succession occurring in much of the eastern United States is not clear, but anecdotal information suggests that while protected woodland areas develop into climax forests which are less suitable for Box Turtles, little new habitat is created or reverted to early successional stages. In certain areas (e.g., Egmont Key), Box Turtles rely on introduced vegetation species for shelter, and management measures to address invasive vegetation could adversely affect an area's suitability for box turtles.
The impact of climate change is not easy to predict, but recent mild winters in the Mid-Atlantic region have led to problems with animals emerging prematurely from hibernation, after which they are injured by subsequent cold periods (Dodd 2001, Farrell et al. 2006, Ernst and Lovich 2009.
Habitat loss (from sugarcane plantations, cattle grazing and fire impacts), collection for pet or subsistence consumption, and roadkills have all been recorded as threats to T. carolina mexicana. The species can tolerate low-level habitat changes, but probably not large-scale modifications. Habitat across much of the range is probably fairly stable at present, however this should be monitored.
Terrapene carolina yucatana: Some animals are killed by agricultural fires; charred animals encountered serendipitously may be consumed by rural farmers, but the species is too rare to go out looking for it.. Some animals are kept as pets locally. Very few animals are kept in captivity abroad (Buskirk 1993, Artner 2004). Road kill is also a problem for this rare, long lived species
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Degree of Threat: A : Very threatened throughout its range communities directly exploited or their composition and structure irreversibly threatened by man-made forces, including exotic species
Comments: Declines have occurred as a result of habitat loss and, probably, over-collection for export to other countries (mainly western Europe, Canada, Japan) (Lieberman 1994).
Rossell et al. (2002) documented a high level of disease-associated mortality in a population in North Carolina (specific disease unknown).
In Missouri, this species incurred a high rate of mortality as a result of prescribed burning of tallgrass prairie in late October (Frese 2003).
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Threats
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Management
Conservation Actions
Terrapene carolina is included in CITES Appendix II and is subject to a variety of State legislation and regulations in Canada and the United States. Turtles in general are protected from exploitation under Mexican wildlife and natural resource legislation; implementation is uneven.
The species occurs in a large number of protected areas, some of which are large and remote enough to buffer their resident Box Turtle populations from most impacts. A population of Terrapene carolina mexicana could occur in the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve (217 km2, cat. VI; core 167 km2, cat. Ia), but no confirmation is available. Individuals and perhaps populations of Terrapene carolina yucatana could occur in a number of protected natural and archaeological sites, but this remains unconfirmed.
Obvious impacts on Box Turtle populations from residential, industrial, recreational and infrastructure developments should minimize impact on these turtle populations, through measures potentially including translocation, wildlife crossings, creation of replacement habitat, awareness, and other actions. Conservation measures for other species and habitat management focused on ecosystem maintenance or restoration must take the specific needs and sensitivities of Box Turtle populations into account, whether forest or fire management. Removal of Box Turtles from, and release of Box Turtles into natural populations should be minimized through appropriate enforcement of legislation and regulations, and through public awareness. Extensive research on status and conservation biology, and monitoring of population trends, is essential for sound conservation management of the species.
Population assessments, basic natural history studies, habitat monitoring, and confirmation of the occurrence of secure populations in protected areas, or establishment of one or more suitable PAs, are urgently needed for Terrapene carolina mexicana and Terrapene carolina yucatana.
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Management Requirements: Prescribed burning should not include hot summer burns--may kill turtles.
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Global Protection: Very many (>40) occurrences appropriately protected and managed
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Conservation
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Relevance to Humans and Ecosystems
Benefits
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Terrapene carolina are dangerous to eat due to the possibility of being poisoned, presumably due to the turtle having eaten poisonous mushrooms that don't hurt it, but that retain their ability to poison humans. They sometimes cause damage to tomato, lettuce, cucumber, cantaloupe, and strawberry crops. They sometimes destroy the eggs of ground-nesting birds. They may carry the western equine encephalitis virus in their blood.
Box turtles eat some fungi that are poisonous to people. Therefore, box turtles may be dangerous to eat dif they have the poisons from the fungi in them. Box turltes sometimes cause damage to tomato, lettuce, cucumber, cantaloupe, and strawberry crops. They sometimes destroy the eggs of ground-nesting birds. Also they may carry the western equine encephalitis virus in their blood.
Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; causes or carries domestic animal disease
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Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Box turtles are very popular as pets, and they may serve the ecological role of a seed distributor through their eating of berries that contain seeds. They also eat some injurious insects. The Iroquois and other Native Americans used them for food, medical, ceremonial, burial, and hunting purposes.
Positive Impacts: pet trade ; food ; body parts are source of valuable material; source of medicine or drug ; controls pest population
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Comments: Very popular in the pet trade; USFWS (Federal Register, 2 February 1996) reported that approximately 26,000 T. CAROLINA were reported as exported in both 1992 and 1993, 22,000 in 1994.
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Yucatán box turtle
The Yucatán box turtle (Terrapene carolina yucatana) is a subspecies of box turtle endemic to Mexico, in the state of Yucatán.
Description
Its shell is light-colored with some star-shaped dark spots. Its head is also light-colored. It has four toes on each foot.
References
- ^ Rhodin, Anders G.J.; van Dijk, Peter Paul; Inverson, John B.; Shaffer, H. Bradley (2010-12-14). "Turtles of the world, 2010 update: Annotated checklist of taxonomy, synonymy, distribution and conservation status". Chelonian Research Monographs 5: 000.107. Archived from the original on 2010-12-15. http://www.webcitation.org/5uzfktoIh.
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Common box turtle
The common box turtle (Terrapene carolina) is a species of box turtle with six existing subspecies. It is found throughout the eastern United States and Mexico. The box turtle has a distinctive hinged lowered shell (the box) that allows it to completely enclose itself. Its upper jaw is long and curved.
The turtle is primarily terrestrial and eats a wide variety of plants and animals. The females lay their eggs in the summer. Turtles in the northern part of their range hibernate over the winter.
Common box turtle numbers are declining because of habitat loss, roadkill, and capture for the pet trade. The species is classified as Vulnerable to threats to its survival by the IUCN Red List. Three U.S. states name subspecies of the common box turtle as their official reptile.
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Classification
Terrapene carolina was first described by Linnaeus in 1758. It is the type species for the Terrapene genus and also has more subspecies than the other three species within that genus. The eastern box turtle subspecies was the one recognized by Linnaeus. The other five species were first classified during the 19th century.[2] In addition, one extinct species is distinguished.[3]
- Subspecies
| Country | Species | Scientific Name | Classified by | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| United States | Eastern box turtle | Terrapene carolina carolina | Linnaeus | 1758 |
| United States | Florida box turtle | Terrapene carolina bauri | Taylor | 1895 |
| United States | Gulf Coast box turtle | Terrapene carolina major | Agassiz | 1857 |
| United States | Three-toed box turtle | Terrapene carolina triunguis | Agassiz | 1857 |
| Mexico | Mexican box turtle | Terrapene carolina mexicana | Gray | 1849 |
| Mexico | Yucatán box turtle | Terrapene carolina yucatana | Boulenger | 1895 |
| North America | (no common name) | Terrapene carolina putnami (extinct) | Hay | 1906 |
Description
The common box turtle (Terrapene carolina) gets its common name from the structure of its shell which consists of a high domed carapace (upper shell), and large, hinged plastron (lower shell) which allows the turtle to close the shell, sealing its vulnerable head and limbs safely within an impregnable box.[4] The carapace is brown, often adorned with a variable pattern of orange or yellow lines, spots, bars or blotches. The plastron is dark brown and may be uniformly coloured, or show darker blotches or smudges.[5]
The common box turtle has a small to moderately sized head and a distinctive hooked upper jaw.[5] The majority of adult male common box turtles have red irises, while those of the female are yellowish-brown. Males also differ from females by possessing shorter, stockier and more curved claws on their hind feet, and longer and thicker tails.[5]
There are six living subspecies of the common box turtle, each differing slightly in appearance, namely in the colour and patterning of the carapace, and the possession of either three or four toes on each hind foot. The subspecies Terrapene carolina triunguis is particularly distinctive as most males have a bright red head.[5]
Distribution
The common box turtle inhabits open woodlands, marshy meadows, floodplains, scrub forest and brushy grasslands.[4][5]
The common box turtle occurs in much of the eastern United States—from Maine and Michigan to eastern Texas and south Florida. It is found in Canada in southern Ontario and in Mexico along the Gulf coast and in the Yucatán Peninsula.[1][5] The species range is not continuous as the two Mexican subspecies, T. c. mexicana (Mexican box turtle) and T. c. yucatana (Yucatán box turtle), are separated from the U.S. subspecies by a gap in western Texas. Three of the U.S. subspecies; T. c. carolina (eastern box turtle), T. c. major (Gulf Coast box turtle) and T. c. bauri (Florida box turtle); occur roughly in the areas indicated by their names. T. c. triunguis (three-toed box turtle) is found in the central United States.[5]
| Eastern box turtle Terrapene carolina carolina | Florida box turtle T. c. bauri | Gulf Coast box turtle T. c. major |
|---|---|---|
 |  |  |
| Three-toed box turtle T. c. triunguis | Mexican box turtle T. c. mexicana | Yucatán box turtle T. c. yucatana |
 |  |  |
Behavior
Common box turtles are predominantly terrestrial reptiles that are often seen early in the day, or after rain, when they emerge from the shelter of rotting leaves, logs, or a mammal burrow to forage. These turtles have an incredibly varied diet of animal and plant matter, including earthworms, slugs, insects, wild berries,[4] and sometimes even animal carrion.[5]
In the warmer summer months, common box turtles are more likely to be seen near the edges of swamps or marshlands,[4] possibly in an effort to stay cool. If common box turtles do become too hot, (when their body temperature rises to around 32°C), they smear saliva over their legs and head; as the saliva evaporates it leaves them comfortably cooler. Similarly, the turtle may urinate on its hind limbs to cool the body parts it is unable to cover with saliva.[6]
Courtship in the common box turtle, which usually takes place in spring, begins with a "circling, biting and shoving" phase. These acts are carried out by the male on the female.[5] Following some pushing and shell-biting, the male grips the back of the female’s shell with his hind feet to enable him to lean back, slightly beyond the vertical, and mate with the female.[7] Remarkably, female common box turtles can store sperm for up to four years after mating,[5] and thus do not need to mate each year.[7]
In May, June or July, females normally lay a clutch of 1 to 11 eggs into a flask-shaped nest excavated in a patch of sandy or loamy soil. After 70 to 80 days of incubation, the eggs hatch, and the small hatchlings emerge from the nest in late summer. In the northern parts of its range, the common box turtle may enter hibernation in October or November. They burrow into loose soil, sand, vegetable matter, or mud at the bottom of streams and pools, or they may use a mammal burrow, and will remain in their chosen shelter until the cold winter has passed.[5]
Human interaction
Conservation
Although the common box turtle has a wide range and was once considered common, many populations are in decline as a result of a number of diverse threats. Agricultural and urban development is destroying habitat, while human fire management is degrading it.[1] Development brings with it an additional threat in the form of increased infrastructure, as common box turtles are frequently killed on roads and highways. Collection for the international pet trade may also impact populations in some areas.[5][8] The life history characteristics of the common box turtle (long lifespan and slow reproductive rate)[5] make it particularly vulnerable to such threats. The common box turtle is therefore classified as a Vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List.[1] The common box turtle is also listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that international trade in this species should be carefully monitored to ensure it is compatible with the species’ survival.[9] In addition, many U.S. states now regulate or prohibit the taking of this species.[5]
This species also occurs in a number of protected areas, some of which are large enough to protect populations from the threat of development, while it may also occur in the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. Conservation recommendations for the common box turtle include establishing management practices during urban developments that are sympathic to this species, as well as further research into its life history and the monitoring of populations.[1]
State reptiles
"The turtle watches undisturbed as countless generations of faster 'hares' run by to quick oblivion, and is thus a model of patience for mankind, and a symbol of our State’s unrelenting pursuit of great and lofty goals."
Common box turtles are official state reptiles of three U.S. states. North Carolina and Tennessee honor the eastern box turtle,[11][12][13] while Missouri names the three-toed box turtle.[14]
In Pennsylvania, the eastern box turtle made it through one house of the legislature, but failed to win final naming in 2009.[15] In Virginia, bills to honor the eastern box turtle failed in 1999 and then in 2009. For the most recent failure, a Republican legislator characterized the creature as being cowardly because of its shell. However, the main problem in Virginia was that the creature was too closely linked to neighbor state North Carolina.[16][17]
References
This article incorporates text from the ARKive fact-file "Common box turtle" under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License and the GFDL.
Citations
- ^ a b c d e van Dijk, P.P. (2010). "Terrapene carolina". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/21641. Retrieved 19 July 2011.
- ^ Fritz 2007, p. 196
- ^ KDodd, pp. 24–30
- ^ a b c d Capula, M. (1990). The Macdonald Encyclopedia of Amphibians and Reptiles. London: Macdonald and Co Ltd.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Ernst, C. H.; Altenbourgh, R. G. M.; Barbour, R. W. (1997). Turtles of the World. Netherlands: ETI Information Systems Ltd. http://ip30.eti.uva.nl/BIS/turtles.php.
- ^ Alderton, D. (1988). Turtles and Tortoises of the World. London: Blandford Press.
- ^ a b Halliday, T.; Adler, K. (2002). The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ "Nature Serve". http://www.natureserve.org. Retrieved March 2008.
- ^ "CITES". CITES. http://www.cites.org. Retrieved June 2007.
- ^ "Eastern Box Turtle – North Carolina State Reptiles". North Carolina Department of the Secretary of State. http://www.secretary.state.nc.us/pubsweb/symbols/sy-turtl.htm. Retrieved 2011-02-13.
- ^ Shearer 1994, p. 321
- ^ "Official State Symbols of North Carolina". North Carolina State Library. State of North Carolina. http://ncpedia.org/symbols/reptile. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
- ^ "Tennessee Symbols And Honor" (PDF). Tennessee Blue Book: 526. http://www.state.tn.us/sos/bluebook/07-08/46-Symbols%20&%20Honors.pdf. Retrieved 2011-01-22.
- ^ "State Symbols of Missouri: State Reptile". Missouri Secretary of State Robin Carnihan. http://www.sos.mo.gov/symbols/symbols.asp?symbol=reptile. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
- ^ "Regular Session 2009–2010: House Bill 621". Pennsylvania State Legislature. http://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/billinfo/bill_history.cfm?syear=2009&sind=0&body=H&type=B&bn=621. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ "SB 1504 Eastern Box Turtle; designating as official state reptile". Virginia State Legislature. https://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?091+sum+SB1504. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ Associated Press (2009-02-20). "Virginia House crushes box turtle's bid to be state reptile". NBC Washington. http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/Virginia-House-Crushes-Box-Turtles-Bid-to-Be-State-Reptile.html. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
Bibliography
- Dodd Jr., C. Kenneth (2002). North American Box Turtles: A Natural History. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3501-4.
- Fritz, Uwe; Havaš, Peter (2007). "Checklist of Chelonians of the World". Vertebrate Zoology 57 (2): 149–368. Archived from the original on 2010-12-17. http://www.webcitation.org/5v20ztMND. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
- Shearer, Benjamin F.; Shearer, Barbara S. (1994). State names, seals, flags, and symbols (2nd ed.). Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-28862-3.
Source:
Wikipedia
Unreviewed
Names and Taxonomy
Taxonomy
Comments: Six living subspecies are recognized (CAROLINA, MEXICANA, TRIUNGUIS, MAJOR, BAURI, and YUCATANA) (Ernst and McBreen 1991). Ward (1980) regarded MAJOR as a distinct species, but Dundee and Rossman (1989) concluded that MAJOR is best regarded as a subspecies.
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