Lesser yellowlegs breed in interior Alaska and northern Canada as far east as central Quebec. They breed between 51 and 69 degrees north latitude in suitable habitat. They breed farther north than their close relative, greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca), where they co-occur. Historically, some populations of lesser yellowlegs might have bred farther south then they do currently. Lesser yellowlegs are migratory. In winter, they are found along the coasts of North America from New Jersey on the Atlantic coast and San Francisco Bay on the Pacific coast and along coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf of California. They winter throughout most of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Antilles. The largest concentration of wintering birds occurs in Suriname and along the Gulf of Mexico. Small numbers are found wintering in inland areas throughout their winter range. Vagrant individuals have been reported from Greenland, Iceland, offshore islands, the British Isles, mainland Europe, Africa, New Zealand, Australia, eastern Asia, and the Hawaiian Islands.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Breeding range extends from north-central Quebec to western Alaska and from the southern portions of the Prairie Provinces to northern Mackenzie (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999); unconfirmed breeding reported south to southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois. During the nonbreeding season, this species occurs mainly from the southern United States (Texas, Louisiana, Florida, South Carolina) south through Middle America, West Indies (present all year in Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands), and South America (to Tierra del Fuego); the major coastal nonbreeding areas in South America are the Guyanas, especially Suriname (Morrison and Ross 1989); uncommon but regular in Hawaii. Nonbreeders may summer in the winter range.

Lesser yellowlegs are medium-sized sandpipers with long, yellow legs and long, graceful necks. Males and females are similar in plumage and size, although females have longer wingspans on average. In the breeding season lesser yellowlegs have grey, black, and white mottled plumage dorsally, white belly, and brown streaks on a white background on the neck and breast. Their primary feathers are black. Outside of the breeding season their colors are more muted and uniformly gray on the upperparts, with some spotting, and white with small gray spots on their underparts. There is no reported geographic variation. They are easily recognized by their long legs, necks, and bills and bright yellow legs, being only confused with greater yellowlegs (Tringa melanoleuca). Lesser yellowlegs are overall smaller than greater yellowlegs by up to 30% and their bill is slender and about the same length as the head. The bills of greater yellowlegs are about 1.5 times the length of their head, more robust, and are slightly upturned. They can also be distinguished by their call: 1 to 3 (usually 2) low notes in lesser yellowlegs, 3 to 4 higher, more resonant notes in greater yellowlegs. Their bills are black.

Range mass: 67 to 94 g.

Range length: 23 to 25 cm.

Range wingspan: 59 to 64 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes shaped differently

Length: 27 cm

Weight: 81 grams

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater
• Marine

Lesser yellowlegs nest in open and edge boreal forest habitats, usually near wetlands. They are found in open deciduous or coniferous forest mosaics with wet or sedge meadows, marshes, bogs, or muskegs. In the breeding season they travel between nesting areas and foraging areas daily, with foraging areas mainly along the shores of lakes, sloughs, estuaries, and marshes. During migration and winter they are found in inland (spring and fall migration) and coastal (fall migration) wetland habitats of all kinds from 0 to 3800 meters elevation. Highest concentrations of migrating and wintering individuals tend to be seen in mudflats, saltwater marshes, and lagoons near the coast. They may also be seen in flooded agricultural fields.

Range elevation: 0 to 3800 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial ; saltwater or marine ; freshwater

Aquatic Biomes: coastal

Wetlands: marsh ; bog

Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; estuarine

Comments: Nonbreeding: marshes, ponds, wet meadows, lakes and mudflats (AOU 1983), coastal salinas. Nests in muskeg country, to edge of tundra, in marshes and bogs, clearings or burned-over sections of black spruce forest. The nest is a depression in the ground. It may be located on a slope, far from water (Terres 1980).

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Migrates regularly throughout North America south of breeding range and eastward (AOU 1983). Seen along U.S. coast during northward migration in April-May; in Canada, migrates primarily through interior in spring (Godfrey 1986). In fall many migrate farther east than they do in spring, reaching eastern Canada and Atlantic states; some of these may then fly nonstop to South America (see Johnson and Herter 1989). Southward migration begin early July, continues into October (Hayman et al. 1986). Migrates through Costa Rica August to mid-October and March-early May (Stiles and Skutch 1989). Reaches South America by early August, most depart by mid-April (Hilty and Brown 1986).

Lesser yellowlegs eat mainly invertebrates, especially flies and beetles. They may also eat small fish, snails, spiders, crustaceans, worms, and seeds. They forage by walking through shallow water or mud and plucking prey from at or below the surface with their long bill. They either make short jabs with the bill or move the bill from side to side, snapping at prey that they find. They may forage at any time of the day. Most foraging is in water that is only a few cm deep, although they may forage in water up to their bellies. Reported insect prey includes high proportions of midges (Chironomidae), water boatmen (Corixidae), mayflies (Baetidae), and water scavenging beetles (Hydrophilidae). Individuals may display aggression towards others when competing over food resources.

Animal Foods: fish; insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods; mollusks; aquatic or marine worms; aquatic crustaceans

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts

Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )

Comments: Feeds mainly on insects (e.g. beetles, dragonfly nymphs, grasshoppers, flys, etc) small crustaceans, bloodworms, spiders, and some small fishes. Forages by snatching prey with bill.

Lesser yellowlegs may flock and migrate with or nest near other species of shorebirds, including greater yellowlegs, Hudsonian godwits, American avocets, pectoral sandpipers, dowitchers, stilt sandpipers, white-rumped sandpipers, and semipalmated sandpipers.

Lesser yellowlegs are vulnerable to eastern encephalitis and avian botulism. Known internal parasites include cestodes (Kowalewskiella totani) and trematodes (Cyclocoelum brasilianun). External parasites reported are bird lice (Quadraceps falcigerus) and nasal mites (Neoboydaia philomachi and Rhinonyssus coniventris).

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

• cestodes (Kowalewskiella totani)
• trematodes (Cyclocoelum brasilianun)
• bird lice (Quadraceps falcigerus)
• nasal mites (Neoboydaia philomachi)
• nasal mites (Rhinonyssus coniventris)

Adults and fledglings are taken by a wide variety of avian predators, including peregrine falcons, merlins, long-tailed jaegers, northern harriers, northern goshawks, sharp-shinned hawks, short-eared owls, and gyrfalcons. Snapping turtles have been known to attack adults while foraging. Adults attack potential predators of eggs and nestlings, including sandhill cranes, peregrine falcons, merlins, northern harriers, bald eagles, mew gulls, herring gulls, short-eared owls, common ravens, black-billed magpies, coyotes, and domestic cats. Potential predators include mink, martens, and red foxes 

Lesser yellowlegs aggressively and enthusiastically defend nests and young from predators, including joining together to mob predators. When alarmed, they bob their heads. In response to terrestrial predators they hover and call, possibly to alert other birds and mob the predator. Nesting adults are very reluctant to flush from a nest, staying on until a predator is less than 1 m away. They may dive at predators or use distraction displays to lure them away. Peregrine falcons swoop on nesting areas to flush birds and then grab them in mid-flight. Sandhill cranes actively search for young by moving their heads back and forth through marsh grasses.

Known Predators:

• peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus)
• merlins (Falco columbarius)
• long-tailed jaegers (Stercorarius longicaudus)
• northern harriers (Circus cyaneus)
• northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis)
• sharp-shinned hawks (Accipiter striatus)
• short-eared owls (Asio flammeus)
• gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus)
• snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina)
• sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis)
• bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
• mew gulls (Larus canus)
• herring gulls (Larus argentatus)
• common ravens (Corvus corax)
• coyotes (Canis latrans)
• black-billed magpies (Pica hudsonica)
• domestic cats (Felis catus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

100,000 - 1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Global population estimated at 500,000 individuals (range 300,000-800,000; Morrison et al. 2001, Sinclair et al. 2004).

Nonbreeding: often in loose flocks.

Both males and females give the characteristic "tu-tu" call of lesser yellowlegs, which seems to be a welcome or contact call. They use a sharp "kip" alarm call that is accompanied by bobbing of the tail and head. Parents use a softer "kip" or "cup" call with nestlings and males chatter before copulation. Breeding males and females also perform a song, described as "pill-e-wee" repeated, but only males perform a flight display to advertise breeding territories. Flight displays involve a male flying to 10 to 75 m, then leveling off and gliding down while spreading the tail, dangling the legs, and elevating the head. Songs and calls are often performed from perches and vocalizations are more frequent during the breeding season. Lesser yellowlegs also use appeasement and aggressive displays, usually in foraging or courtship interactions. Males also use a pre-copulatory display that involves a chase accompanied by chatter. If a female is receptive, he then lifts his wings above his head and flutters the wing tips.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Foraged with comparable frequency during day and night in northeastern Venezuela (Robert et al. 1989).

There is little data on survival and lifespan in the wild. The oldest recorded wild individual was 4 years and 9 months old. Known causes of mortality are predation, disease, vehicle collisions, hypothermia, poisoning, and hunting.

Range lifespan

Status: wild: 4.75 (high) years.

Lesser yellowlegs are seasonally monogamous, pairs typically don't mate again in subsequent years. Males perform flight displays, accompanied by song, over nesting and foraging areas in the breeding range to attract mates. Males may also behave aggressively towards other males when establishing nesting territories and during courtship. Males guard females from other males during courtship and egg-laying. Extra-pair copulations have not been reported.

Mating System: monogamous

Lesser yellowlegs migrate to breeding areas where they form pairs soon after arrival and begin breeding, usually by mid-May. They form simple nest scrapes and lay 4 eggs (maximum 6) in June and July. They may dig and line up to 75 nest scrapes before deciding on a final one. Scrapes are placed in elevated, mossy, dry areas, with overhanging vegetation and within 200 meters of water. Eggs are generally buffy, gray, brown, or green with brown spots. Although lesser yellowlegs may re-nest after a nest failure, it is likely that pairs raise only 1 brood yearly. Eggs are incubated for 22 to 23 days and eggs hatch within a few days of each other. Young leave the nest within a few hours of all eggs hatching and can fly within 22 to 23 days after hatching. They are independent from 23 to 31 days after hatching. Some lesser yellowlegs attempt to breed in their first year of hatching, but more attempt their first breeding at 2 years old.

Breeding interval: Lesser yellowlegs breed once yearly in general, although individuals may skip breeding years.

Breeding season: Lesser yellowlegs breed in May each year.

Range eggs per season: 6 (high) .

Average eggs per season: 4.

Range time to hatching: 22 to 23 days.

Range fledging age: 22 to 23 days.

Range time to independence: 1 to 9 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 1 (low) years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 1 (low) years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Both parents incubate and brood the young. Young are precocial at hatching and can get around on their own and feed themselves within hours. Parents lead young to foraging areas by flying ahead, landing, and then calling to the young. Both parents continue to protect the young until they fledge or a few days longer, although females may abandon males with the young. Females generally stay with the young for about 11 days after hatching, males stay with them for about 26 days after hatching.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Protecting: Male, Female)

Eggs are laid usually mid-May to late June. Both sexes, in turn, incubate 4 eggs for 22-23 days (Terres 1980). Precocial young are tended by both parents, can fly at 18-20 days. Tends to nest in loose colonies (Hayman et al. 1986).

Populations of lesser yellowlegs are currently estimated at up to 800,000 birds and they are widespread. Although they were previously hunted widely and populations may not have recovered to previous levels, they are currently considered least concern by the IUCN. However, population decreases along migration routes have been documented.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Large nesting range in North America; large population size; some evidence indicates declining abundance; better information on trend and threats is needed.

Comments: Potential or localized threats include habitat degradation on breeding and wintering grounds, exposure to contaminants, and sport hunting.

DEGRADATION OF HABITAT: In some areas this species is threatened by habitat loss from development (e.g., wetland drainage) or alteration as a result of road construction or agricultural practices. However, this species will nest along seismic lines, in agricultural fields, and along roadsides, suggesting it can adapt to habitat change (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999). Many wetlands along migratory routes and wintering areas were destroyed or manipulated in the early 1900s; wooded wetland habitats in Central and South American wintering range continue to be altered and lost at considerable rates (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999).

CONTAMINATION: Birds may be exposed to oil, pesticides, and other contaminants in estuaries, flooded agricultural fields, and sewage lagoon habitats (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999). During a five-year study (1967-1971) on the effects of the organochlorine aldrin on rice fields in the Texas Gulf coast, twelve birds were found dead of aldrin-dieldrin poisoning. Tissues collected from several birds near Corpus Christi, Texas contained relatively high levels of selenium. Elevated levels of the organochlorine DDE were found in tissues of migrant birds collected in Peru, Ecuador and Costa Rica (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999).

HUNTING: During the early twentieth century, lesser yellowlegs was a popular game species; large numbers were harvested at many migration and wintering sites (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999). After the passage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1927), shorebird hunting declined throughout North America; however, as recently as 1991, several thousand lesser yellowlegs were still being shot annually by sport hunters in Barbados; a few birds were shot illegally each fall (1976-1989) at a site in British Columbia; and several recent observations of crippled birds or birds missing feet and legs in Alaska and British Columbia may be attributed to hunting (Senner and Howe 1984, Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999).

Biological Research Needs: Reasons for the observed decline should be investigated. Breeding ecology needs study; long-term research is needed on breeding behavior, habitat use, breeding success, survival, and productivity (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999). More information is needed on effects of habitat alteration. Studies that measure habitat requirements during migration and on wintering grounds are needed. The magnitude of hunting and exposure to contaminants on the nonbreeding range should be assessed (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999).

There are no known adverse effects of lesser yellowlegs on humans.

Lesser yellowlegs are important predators of aquatic insects where they occur. Historically, and in some areas still, they are hunted for food.

Positive Impacts: food

Comments: Most classifications regard greater (Tringa melanoleuca) and lesser yellowlegs (T. flavipes) as closely related species; however, some evidence suggests that the yellowlegs are not sister taxa (Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999). Recent phylogenetic analysis supports placing greater yellowlegs as a sister species to spotted redshank (T. erythropus), with lesser yellowlegs among an unresolved group of other tringines, including marsh sandpiper (T. stagnatilis), common redshank (T. totanus), and common greenshank (T. nebularia) (Chu 1995, Tibbitts and Moskoff 1999).