Global Range: (1000-5000 square km (about 400-2000 square miles)) The historical range extended from the Arctic coast of North Amercica south to central Mexico, and from Utah east to New Jersey, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; in the 19th and 20th centuries, nesting occurred principally in the region extending from central Canada to the north-central United States (see CWS and USFWS 2007). Current distribution includes just three populations: (1) the Aransas-Wood Buffalo National Park Population that nests in Wood Buffalo National Park and adjacent areas in Canada (south-central Mackenzie and adjacent northern Alberta) and winters in coastal marshes in Texas, with significant migration stopovers in southern Saskatchewan, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma; (2) a reintroduced non-migratory Florida Population that occurs in central Florida; and (3) a reintroduced Eastern Migratory Population that migrates between Wisconsin (Necedah National Wildlife Refuge) and Florida (Chassahowitzka NWR) (CWS and USFWS 2007).

Extent of occurrence (breeding) appears to be less than 5,000 square kilometers.

Grus americana is a native migratory bird species within the Nearctic region. The historical breeding range extends throughout the central United States and Canada and also used to include parts of north central Mexico. Few wild populations occur today. One population breeds within the Wood Buffalo National Park in the Northwest Territories of Canada and overwinters along the Gulf Coast in the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge of Texas. A second, minute population spends the summer in Idaho, Wyoming and Montana, and migrates to their wintering grounds in the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. A third introduced, non-migratory population resides in the Kissimmee Prairie, Florida.

Migration for the Wood Buffalo and Rocky Mountain populations includes stopovers throughout the United States and Canada including North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Montana, and Saskatchewan.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Non-breeding

Adult whooping cranes are large, long-legged birds with long necks that measure 130 to 160 cm in length, and feature a wingspan of 200 to 230 cm. They are primarily white in color. Their primary wing feathers and long legs are black, while their toes are grayish-rose in color. The crown, lores, and malar areas are bare skin that varies in color from bright red to black. The bare skin is covered in short, black bristles that are the most dense around the edges of bare skin. They feature yellow eyes and a bill that is pinkish at the base, but mostly gray or olive in color. Both sexes resemble each other, however, the male whooping crane weighs more. Adult males and adult females weigh an average of 7.3 kg and 6.4 kg respectively. Young whooping crane chicks are cinnamon or brown in color along the back and a dull gray or brown on the underbelly. Juvenile whooping cranes have feather-covered heads and white plumage which is blotched cinnamon or brown. The area of the crown which becomes bare skin has short feathers.

Closely related sandhill cranes are gray and smaller than whooping cranes but they may appear white, especially in the sun. In flight, wood storks resemble whooping cranes, but they feature black secondary as well as primary feathers, yellow feet, and a short neck that is bare, dark skin.

Range mass: 4.5 to 8.5 kg.

Range length: 130 to 160 cm.

Average length: 150 cm.

Range wingspan: 200 to 230 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike; male larger

Length: 132 cm

Weight: 5826 grams

Differs from sandhill crane in being mainly white instead of gray. Differs from white ibis in being larger and having a straight bill rather than a decurved one. Differs from white herons and egrets in having black primaries and red facial skin. Differs from snow goose in having much longer legs and neck. Differs from white swans in having black primaries, much longer legs, and a pointed bill.

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater
• Marine

The habitat of Grus americana, especially for nesting, consists of an open area which is close to large amounts of water and vegetation. The open area is especially important to visually detect possible predators. Whooping cranes nest in wetland and marsh areas or close to shallow ponds or lakes. Bulrush (Scirpus validus) marshes and diatom ponds are common and bogs are avoided. The habitats chosen typically include willow, sedge meadows, mudflats, and bulrush and cattail (Typha latifolia) marshes. These habitat types not only provide protection for predators but also provide a variety of food opportunities. During migration, Grus americana seeks similar habitats in wetlands, submerged sandbars and agricultural fields. In the winter, wet habitats are also sought out in the form of brackish bays and coastal marshes. Grus americana prefers marshes with a typical pH range of 7.6 to 8.3.

The elevation varies considerably due to the wintering and breeding ranges for Grus americana. The Aransas National Wildlife Refuge on the Gulf Coast of Mexico is at low elevations between 0 to 10 m. The northern breeding grounds in the Wood Buffalo National Park can reach elevations of up to 945 m.

Range elevation: 0 to 945 m.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland

Aquatic Biomes: lakes and ponds; coastal ; brackish water

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp

Other Habitat Features: agricultural

Comments: Nesting occurs in dense emergent vegetation (sedge, bulrush) in shallow (often slightly alkaline) ponds (Kuyt 1995), freshwater marshes, wet prairies, or along lake margins. Pothole breeding sites in Canada are separated by narrow ridges vegetated by black spruce, tamarack, and willow. The nest is a mound of marsh vegetation rising about 20-50 centimeters above the surrounding water level.

Habitat during migration and winter includes marshes, shallow lakes, lagoons, salt flats, grain and stubble fields, and barrier islands (AOU 1983, Matthews and Moseley 1990). Radio-marked migrants roosted primarily in palustrine wetlands, many of which were smaller than 0.5 hectares (Howe 1989). Migration habitat includes mainly sites with good horizontal visibility, water depth of 30 centimeters or less, and minimum wetland size of 0.04 hectares for roosting (Armbruster 1990, which see for further details).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Now migrates mainly through Great Plains from southern Canada and Dakotas south to Texas (arrives around mid-October). Introduced individuals migrate from Idaho (also Utah, Montana, and Wyoming) south primarily to central New Mexico (this population is headed for extirpation). Pairs or family groups begin northward migration early to mid-April. An 85,000 sq km area in Saskatchewan appears to serve as a premigratory staging area in fall, but there are no critical, traditional wetlands used elsewhere by migrants (Howe 1989). Spring migrants use Platte Valley during northward migration. See Howe (1989) for information on migration between Texas and Saskatchewan (distribution patterns of radio-tracked individuals differed greatly from distributions derived from opportunistic sightings). See also Johnsgard (1991) for details on spring and fall migration.

An attempt to establish a nonmigratory population in Florida was underway in the early 1990s.

Grus americana is omnivorous and eats a variety of plant and animal material both on the ground and in water. The primary wintering foods are blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) and wolfberry fruits (Lycium carolinianum). Other wintering foods include: clams, acorns, snails, grass hoppers, mice, voles and, snakes. On migratory stopovers through the central United States and Saskatchewan, whooping cranes feed on plant tubers and waste grains in agricultural fields. While on breeding grounds their diet consists of minnows, insects, frogs, snakes, mice, berries, crayfish, calms and snails.

Within whooping crane's winter diets blue crabs provide the highest crude protein value and wolfberries have the highest metabolic energy and lipid content.

Animal Foods: mammals; amphibians; reptiles; fish; insects; mollusks; terrestrial worms; aquatic crustaceans

Plant Foods: roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: omnivore

Comments: During summer, feeds on insects, crustaceans, and berries; winter diet includes grains, acorns, wolfberry fruit, insects, crustaceans (e.g., blue crab, crayfish), mollusks (e.g., the clam TAGELLUS PLEBIUS and the snail Melampus coffeus), fishes, amphibians, reptiles, marine worms (USFWS 1980, Hunt and Slack 1989). Blue crabs obtained from flooded tidal flats and sloughs dominate diet in Texas until January; then cranes move to shallow bays and channels to eat clams and an occasional crab (Matthews and Moseley 1990). Radio-marked migrants fed primarily in a variety of croplands (Howe 1989). Probes in mud or sand in or near shallow water, takes prey from water column, or picks items from substrate (Ehrlich et al. 1992).

Whooping cranes are both predators and prey to a number of species. As omnivores, these birds impact many populations within local ecosystems. Currently with such low population numbers, this species likely cannot support a predator species, but historically it may have played a larger role as prey.

Whooping cranes are the most vulnerable in the first year and especially up until fledging. Dry years make the young particularly vulnerable as the nests are easily accessible to terrestrial predators.

Whooping cranes have a number of strategies for preventing attacks such as alarm calls or a distraction display for large predators. The most common display is a slow walk strut, with the body turned sideways to the predator and the feet lifted high. This emphasizes the crane's large size and may deter an attack. If the predator persists, a whooping crane lowers its bill to the ground and releases a low growl. As a final warning before a physical attack, a crane will face the predator, and spread and droop its wings while extending its neck. When a large predator nears the nest, the incubating parent may leave the nest to lure the predator away by dragging its wing in a distraction display.

Whooping cranes are subject to predation from both terrestrial and aerial predators. Some common terrestrial predators include black bear, wolverines, gray wolves, red foxes, lynx, bobcats, coyotes, and raccoons. Bald eagles, northern ravens, and golden eagles are all aerial predators of cranes. Golden eagles have been reported to attack whooping cranes in the air and are a significant threat during migration. Whooping cranes fly at very high altitudes during migration, which may be a strategy to avoid these fatal aerial attacks.

Known Predators:

• Black Bears (Ursus americanus)
• Wolverines (Gulo luscus)
• Gray wolves (Canis lupus)
• Red fox (Vulpes fulva)
• Lynx (Lynx canadensis)
• Bobcats (Lynx rufus)
• Coyotes (Canis latrans)
• Raccoons (Procyon lotor)
• Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos)
• Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
• Northern ravens (Corvus corax)

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 1 - 5

Comments: Three populations currently exist (see Range Extent comments).

50 - 250 individuals

Comments: The total wild population in February 2006 was estimated at 338. Fewer than 250 are mature in the only self-sustaining population; for example, in 2005, 58 of the 72 known adult pairs in the Canadian population nested (Brian Johns, CWS, pers. comm.).

The February 2006 population included: 215 individuals in the only self-sustaining Aransas-Wood Buffalo National Park Population that nests in Wood Buffalo National Park and adjacent areas in Canada and winters in coastal marshes in Texas; 59 captive-raised individuals released in an effort to establish a non-migratory Florida Population in central Florida; and 64 individuals introduced between 2001 and 2005 that migrate between Wisconsin and Florida in an eastern migratory population. The last remaining wild bird in the reintroduced Rocky Mountain Population died in the spring, 2002. The captive population contained 135 birds in February, 2006, with annual production from the Calgary Zoo, International Crane Foundation, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Species Survival Center, and the San Antonio Zoo. The total population of wild and captive whooping cranes in February, 2006, was 473.

Population has exhibited 10-year periodicity (Boyce and Miller 1985, Dennis et al. 1991).

Mated pairs and families establish and defend winter territories on coastal marshes in Texas. Breeding territories are very large, averaging 770 ha (Johnsgard 1991). Home ranges of breeding pairs in Canada were about 3-19 sq km (Kuyt 1993).

The key form of communication for Grus americana, as indicated by their common name, the whooping crane, is vocal communication. Many calls have been identified for this species including: contact calls, stress calls, distress calls, food-begging calls, flight-intention calls, alarm calls, hissing, flight calls, guard calls, location calls, precopulation calls, unison calls, and nesting calls. Territory defense is linked with the unison and guard calls. Unison calls are also important in pair formation. The calls of whooping cranes are important as they serve in deterring predators, warnings of attack, protecting and caring for the young, and locating other individuals within the species.

Like all birds, whooping cranes perceive their environment through visual, auditory, tactile, and chemical stimuli.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Other Communication Modes: duets

The estimated longevity of wild Grus americana is 22 to over 30 years. In captivity, the birds are expected to live up to 35 to 40 years old. The mortality of whooping cranes in their first year is approximately 27%. The survival rate of females for their first year is 55% the survival rate of males. Diseases, such as avian tuberculosis and avian cholera, are possible mortality causes for whooping cranes. A cause of mortality of some captive chicks has been intestinal coccidia parasites. Coccidia parasites have been found in both captive and wild whooping cranes and is transmitted through feces. These parasites include Eimeria gruis and E. reichenowi. Coccidiosis is less likely to occur in wild populations due to the large territory and small brood size of whooping cranes. Drought during the breeding season results in greater mortality of the young, since they have to travel farther for food resources and are at risk of attack by terrestrial predators.

Typical lifespan

Status: wild: 22 to 30 years.

Typical lifespan

Status: captivity: 35 to 40 years.

Grus americana is a monogamous species and forms pairs around two or three years old. A pair bond develops through a variety of courtship behaviors including unison walks, unison calls, and courtship dances. Courtship usually begins with dancing, which starts with bowing, hopping, and wing flapping by one, and then both individuals. Each crane repeatedly leaps into the air on stiff legs, which continues until both individuals leap a few times in sync with each other. During the courtship dance the male may also jump over the female as she bows her head toward her body. Calling in unison is also important in pair maintenance and involves a duet between the female and male. The male has a lower call and positions the head straight up and behind vertical while the female is completely vertical or forward of vertical. Once one of the individuals begins the call the other joins in.

Once paired, whooping cranes breed seasonally and start nesting at approximately four years of age. Prior to copulation either individual begins walking slowly, with their bill pointed up, and neck forward and fully extended. This individual releases a low growl and the other individual walks with the same style behind the first and calling with its bill up toward the sky. Copulation commonly occurs at daybreak, however it can occur during any time in the day. Nesting pairs generally mate for life, but one will find a new mate following the death of the other.

Mating System: monogamous

Whooping cranes reproduce once a year from late April to May. Males and females participate in building a flat, ground nest usually on a mound of vegetation surrounded by water. In periods of drought, nesting sites can become no longer suitable for use. Typically two eggs are laid and the incubation period is 30 to 35 days. The sex ratio is nearly equal between the number of males and females hatched. The abandonment or loss of a nest is rare but breeding pairs can re-nest if either occurs within the first fifteen days of incubation. Fledging occurs between 80 to 100 days but the young remain with their parents until they reach independence at 9 months of age. Parents continue to feed and care for the fledgelings. Sexual maturity is reached between 4 and 5 years old.

Breeding interval: Whooping cranes breed once a year.

Breeding season: Whooping cranes breed from late April to May.

Range eggs per season: 1 to 3.

Range time to hatching: 30 to 35 days.

Average time to hatching: 30 days.

Range birth mass: 100 to 150 g.

Range fledging age: 80 to 100 days.

Average time to independence: 9 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 4 to 5 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 4 to 5 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average eggs per season: 2.

Both the male and female share equally in incubation responsibilities. The individual not incubating guards the nest from predators. Once hatched, young chicks are brooded by their parents at night or during bad weather. When a chick displays hunger, referred to as food begging, the parents provide them with food. The female provides the food more often than the male. The adult grasps the food in its bill and the chicks peck at the food. Food choices are initially worms and insects and grow is size as the chick develops. The young gradually start to feed independently. Food begging can be seen in young birds six to nine months old. The majority of juvenile birds completely leave their parents at the end of spring migration the following year.

Parental Investment: precocial ; male parental care ; female parental care ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Male); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

Breeding begins in early May. Pair mates for life. Both sexes, in turn, incubate 2, sometimes 1-3, eggs for 33-34 days. Nestlings are precocial. Young are tended by both adults, fledge when no less than 10 weeks old (no earlier than mid-August), remain with parents until following year (dissociate after arrival on breeding grounds). Sexually mature at 4-6 years.

• 2006
  Endangered
• 2004
  Endangered
• 2000
  Endangered
• 1996
  Endangered
• 1994
  Endangered

Whooping cranes have been the center of many conservation projects. Even though they are still endangered, they have recovered from levels of near extinction in the 1940's to 1950's. Whooping cranes had a total population of 21 in the winter of 1954 and had approximately 260 individuals in 2009. There are a number of ways in which recovery of whooping cranes has been promoted. This includes protection through laws such as, the United States Migratory Bird Act. There are also intense captive breeding and re-introduction efforts. In some cases eggs produced by captive pairs are cared for by human caretakers dressed as whooping cranes, also known as costume-rearing. These re-introduced birds have experienced problems with migration, and it is presumed that juvenile birds learn migration routes from their parents. To help these birds, small, white planes are used as "parent" birds that guide the juveniles on their first journey to their wintering grounds. These methods have had mixed success, but the population is increasing overall.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: endangered

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N1B - Critically Imperiled

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N1N - Critically Imperiled

Rounded Global Status Rank: G1 - Critically Imperiled

Reasons: One self-sustaining population nests in Canada, winters primarily along the Texas coast; two additional reintroduced populations (one migrates Wisconsin-Florida, one nonmigratory in Florida); historically much more widespread; total wild population in 2006 was 338; with about 135 in captive flocks; numbers increasing; problems include habitat degradation, low productivity associated with drought, and mortality from collisions with powerlines along lengthy migratory route.

Other Considerations: High mortality during vulnerable migratory period.

Global Short Term Trend: Increase of 10 to >25%

Comments: Wild population increased from a few dozen to a few hundred over the past three generations (generation time = 13 years; Gil de Weir 2006).

Global Long Term Trend: Decline of >90%

Comments: Historically, population size may have been as high as 10,000 (see CWS and USFWS 2007). A low point came in the mid-1900s when there were fewer than 50 whooping cranes in North America prior to 1968, with an all-time low of 21 as recently as 1954 (CWS and USFWS 2007). With management the total wild population is now a few hundred. Annual growth of the population during the past 65 years has averaged 4.5% per year (CWS and USFWS 2007).

Degree of Threat: A : Very threatened throughout its range communities directly exploited or their composition and structure irreversibly threatened by man-made forces, including exotic species

Comments: Historically, population declines were caused by shooting and destruction of nesting habitat in the prairies from agricultural development. The species was listed as endangered because of low population numbers, slow reproductive potential (sexual maturity is delayed and pairs average less than 1 chick annually), cyclic nesting and wintering habitat suitability, a hazardous 4,000 km migration route that is traversed twice annually, and many human pressures on the wintering grounds. Current threats to wild cranes include collisions with manmade objects such as power lines and fences, accidental shooting, predators (especially predation of flightless chicks), disease (avian tuberculosis has been documented in the Aransas-Wood Buffalo population, and both West Nile virus and H5N1 avian influenza virus are emerging new threats of unknown proportion to both captive and wild populations), habitat destruction and contamination, severe weather, and a loss of two-thirds of the original genetic material. Threats to the captive flock include disease, accidents, and limited genetic material. [Source: CWS and USFWS 2007]

Restoration Potential: See Recovery Plan (CWS and USFWS 2007).

Management Requirements: See Recovery Plan (CWS and USFWS 2007).

Global Protection: Few (1-3) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Virtually all significant occurrences are in national wildlife refuges, national parks, or declared critical habitats for this species.

Needs: Most EOs already are protected. Could extend winter refuge boundaries in Aransas N.W.R. to include Mustard Lake.

There are no adverse effects of whooping cranes on humans.

Whooping cranes serve as an important model for the positive effects of wildlife conservation and management. It is a valuable symbol of conservation and international co-operation between governments for many people. Thousands of people visit the wintering site, Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, each year in order to see whooping cranes.

Positive Impacts: ecotourism

Stewardship Overview: The wild whooping crane population is characterized by low numbers, slow reproductive potential, and limited genetic diversity. A stochastic, catastrophic event could eliminate the wild, self-sustaining Aransas-Wood Buffalo population (AWBP). Therefore, the recovery strategy involves: protection and enhancement of the breeding, migration, and wintering habitat for the AWBP to allow the wild flock to grow and reach ecological and genetic stability; reintroduction and establishment of self-sustaining wild flocks within the species' historic range and that are geographically separate from the AWBP to ensure resilience to catastrophic events; and maintenance of a captive breeding flock to protect against extinction. Offspring from the captive breeding population will be released into the wild to establish these populations. Production by released birds and their offspring will ultimately result in selfsustaining wild populations. The continued growth of the AWBP, establishment of additional populations, and maintenance of the captive flock will also address the loss of genetic diversity. [Source: CWS and USFWS 2007]

Comments: Based on DNA data, Grus grus, G. americana, G. monachus, and G. nigricollis form a monophyletic lineage apart from G. japonicus (Krajewski and Fetzner 1994), and the closest living relative of G. americana may be G. grus (Love and Deininger 1992).

Grus americana exhibits low mtDNA diversity; may have a single mtDNA haplotype (Snowbank and Krajewski 1995).